Strong-minded women: transcending traditional beliefs about attractiveness, strength and health - includes continuing education test

Health statistics today link physical fitness with psychological health. Despite this knowledge, nearly three-quarters of American adults do not participate in regular, sustained physical activity, according to the Surgeon General's Report on Physical Activity and Health. It is fair to assume a majority of females fall into this category.

In Western cultural traditions, female body awareness is more focused on ornamentation and procreation than robust physical fitness. This perspective has led to the neglect of two essential components of physical vitality--muscle mass and strength. Researchers at Tufts University identify lean body mass (muscle) and strength as two of the "biomarkers" critical for health and longevity.

For the average female, intentional development of this aspect of her body has begun to be discouraged before 10 years of age. Similarly, adolescent females are typically steered away from activities which facilitate the development of muscle mass. Research alludes to a transition which occurs between ages 8 and 12,. when females begin participating in more "feminine" and less strenuous physical pursuits. This effectively prevents or discourages the development and maintenance of muscle mass and strength. Thus, outmoded cultural standards continue to dictate what is "appropriate" physical activity for females.

Withholding opportunities for females to experience their bodies as strong, flexi-ble and toned may set the stage for much more than poor physical conditioning. Perhaps the development of particular vulnerabilities to osteoporosis, eating disorders, depression, or gender victimization can be associated with inadequate muscle mass and strength in females.

Osteoporosis

The best defense against developing osteoporosis is to build strong bones early in life, according to the National Osteoporosis Foundation. Studies reveal 80% of those affected by osteoporosis are female. Osteoporosis is characterized by low bone mass and structural deterioration of bony tissue. A key bone-building marker is the density of spinal mineralization. Bone mineral content in the femurs, cervical and lumbar spine, and the radii of bones in female bodybuilders was found to be significantly greater than that of swimmers, collegiate runners, recreational runners and the inactive.

How does strength training affect bone density? Researchers agree strengthening bone entails stimulating the muscle that pulls on it, which in turn facilitates the maintenance of bone density and may lead to increased calcium production. Bone and muscle respond to the overload principle, each becoming stronger and thicker with progressive resistance exercises. Weightlessness studies have found that bones begin to deteriorate in the absence of gravity. Walking or running--both weightbearing exercises--stress muscles and strengthen bones to some extent. However, it is with progressive resistance exercises, or intentional strength training, that significant increases in bone density occur. Identification of an association between the degree of muscularity and the integrity of bone mass strongly advocates the inclusion of strength training in fitness programs for females, as well as males.

Eating Disorders

Eating disorders are another gender-specific vulnerability. Health researchers at Yale University report the extent of dieting and concern about weight control must now be considered a "normative discontent" for females. Thus, a preoccupation with thinness characterizes the responses of normal populations of young women, not just the eating disordered. Citing a nationwide student poll in 1991, the Centers for Disease Control noted 44% of high school girls surveyed indicated they are trying to lose weight. The poll also stated that among the girls surveyed, 80% had utilized exercise regimens, 21% had taken diet pills, and 14% had vomited in attempts to reduce their body weight.

Far less challenging to interpret are the prevalence rates for anorexia nervosa and bulimia, disorders which occur predominantly in females and which may lead to muscle mass and strength decrements. According to researchers, three variables associated with intentionally developed and maintained muscularity are increased bone density, increased basal metabolic rate and improved lean body mass to body fat ratios.

Studies of anorexic adolescent and adult females indicate bone density depletions, and if regular menstrual periods were disrupted before the age of 18, bone density-was reduced an additional 20%. Disordered eating patterns and intense exercise training have been associated with compromised bone mass. A phenomenon termed the female athlete triad refers to the presence of amenorrhea (absent menstrual periods), osteoporosis and an eating disorder.

A fundamental relationship exists between caloric intake and exercise. The basal metabolic rate represents the rate at which calories are burned at rest. Males proportionately have more muscle than women, and muscle cells burn calories faster than fat cells. The greater the amount of lean body mass, the higher the resting metabolism, according to Robert Girandola of the University of Southern California. Exercise programs designed for weight loss are more effective with the addition of a strength training program, as the metabolic rate is directly influenced by the amount and condition of the musculature.

Competitive female bodybuilders often are included in lists of amenorrheic athletes. A critical minimum body fat for the maintenance and/or restoration of regular menstrual cycles is 22%. The restrictive pre-competition eating behaviors in this small subset of athletes may precipitate the same menstrual disturbances that occur with the low-fat diets of adolescent females obsessed with losing weight--not lifting it.

Disordered eating patterns remain a gender-specific vulnerability of females in this culture. A relationship may exist between eating disorders and the magnitude of muscle mass and strength in females. Current research suggests there may be a connection between the presence of an eating disorder and more generalized feelings of body dissatisfaction and depression in females.

Depression

In The Power of Beauty (Harper-Collins, $28), author Nancy Friday argues the strongest predictor of self-esteem for females is a positive self-perception of physical appearance. Females may be more vulnerable to depression because of the greater emphasis attached to their appearance. In a 1993 nationwide survey of 13,000 women conducted by Glamour magazine, 91% reported they did not feel attractive.

Although the extent of dieting and weight control concerns by females may be a "normative discontent," the consequences are not. Body dissatisfaction presumes a woman has already made a negative appraisal of her physical self. If self-esteem is defined as an evaluation made of the "self concept," then a negative appraisal of any aspect of the self is significant.

The addition of physical activity in treatment protocols for depression has been found to be effective. Strength training programs, in particular, have proven beneficial. When compared to population averages, competitive female bodybuilders are reported to be somewhat less depressed. If strength training programs routinely were recommended, perhaps positive appraisals of the physical self could become normative for females. This, in turn, could diminish the generalized feelings of body dissatisfaction and the consequent depressive symptoms. A physically strong female may also mobilize other cognitive and emotional resources to her protective advantage.

Gender Victimization

The neglect of muscle mass and strength development by females is not responsible for the epidemic of violent crimes against women in this culture. Also, developed muscularity will not necessarily equip a female with the means to resist or combat violence. However, it is important for women's physical and psychological health to develop and maintain their musculoskeletal system.

Simone deBeauvoir in The Second Sex (Random House, $20) considers the human body to be the "instrument of our grasp upon the world." Various lines of research have addressed the significance of physical competence in relation to self-esteem, well-being, self-efficacy and self-actualization. Current experimental research describes interrelationships between the muscular system and the psychological states. One comprehensive scientific review concluded, "The subjective experience of how we shape, set, hold, inhibit, express, squeeze, narrow, inflate and expand muscularly is a direct neuromuscular experience of who we are."

Recognizing the prevalence of gender victimization in the United States, Stanford University researchers tested whether or not mastery of physical skills to defend against unarmed assailants might be a means to enhance personal empowerment. Participants were trained for six weeks in physical self-defense skills and verbal aggression techniques. Outcomes revealed that teaching self-protection to females produced enhanced beliefs in the ability to physically cope with threatening situations, and was effective for prior assault victims as well. Follow-up in six months revealed the changes had endured. Some concern was expressed that a physically empowered female might exercise poor judgment in dangerous situations. Instead, these newly acquired defensive skills had led to the formation of a set of awarenesses which were used to discern risk, not to venture heedlessly into it.

If females were encouraged to intentionally develop and maintain their muscle mass, might their psychological health be enhanced in currently unknown ways? Could developed muscle mass and strength serve as a physical reservoir from which to draw potency and sustenance for psychological strength? To begin to address these questions, I designed and conducted an investigation. Representing 27 fitness centers throughout five counties in the San Francisco Bay Area, 138 self-selected strength trained females participated in the project.

What is a Strength Trained Female?

Some grimace at female muscularity, and many view bodybuilding in males or females as little more than exhibitionism. Certainly no other fitness discipline would qualify more completely as a nontraditional physical activity for females. But for many females who choose to strength train, the positive effects may be undermined because the acquired muscularity and pumping of iron necessary to achieve it are only marginally accepted by a disinclined and skeptical public.

Some researchers have suggested that only superficial aspects of the body are enhanced by strength training, and "a muscled concept of beauty" still demands of females a particular body conformation. But strength training is based on physiological and psychological health, not on a narcissistic preoccupation with physical appearance. Recently, there has been an increased acceptance of developed muscularity in females.

Elite female bodybuilders demonstrate psychological profiles no different than the general population and have scored significantly higher on personal, social and satisfaction dimensions of self-concept questionnaires. Perhaps because female body consciousness has been confined and confounded by social dictates, an average, noncompetitive, strength trained female previously has not been conceptualized as a potential model of physical and/or psychological health.

Accordingly, one of the major strengths of the present study lies in the diversity of the participants' age, ethnicity, relationship status, education, income and occupation. Of equal strength, however, is the degree of similarity on other dimensions. Ninety percent are employed outside the home, and yet there is a strong representation of married women and mothers. Individuals earning their income in the field of athletics or physical fitness accounts for only 9% of the participants. Only five participants reported having competed, or currently were actively training to compete. The participants are neither preoccupied nor particularly dissatisfied with their weight, which is an average of 134 pounds. Since childhood, most have engaged in a variety of physical activities, despite the typical absence of parental encouragement. As adults they report being committed to their aerobic and strength training regimens. The majority indicate they had been motivated to begin strength training by the desire to develop muscle mass and strength.

Self-Actualization

Psychologist Abraham Maslow's theory of self-actualization asserts that "actualizers" function more confidently, productively and completely in the world. Fifteen characteristics of the actualizing person, according to Maslow, are efficient perception of reality; acceptance of self, others and nature; spontaneity, simplicity and naturalness; problem centering; quality of detachment; autonomy; freshness of appreciation; peak experiences; kinship with others; deep interpersonal relations; democratic character structure; discrimination between means and ends; sense of humor; creativeness and resistance to enculturation. The self-actualization theory emphasizes that individuals optimize the potential of each organ or body system.

Too many females have neglected to develop and maintain muscle mass and strength. The intentionally strength trained female has an expanded appreciation of her body and experiences the benefits of full physical vitality. In this regard, she represents what Maslow termed an exceptional specimen--the "advanced scout." If developed and maintained muscle mass and strength are essential to physical fitness, and actualization of all capacities is fundamental to psychological fitness, it is reasonable to consider that a reciprocal effect may result when each system is functioning optimally.

The group of 138 strength trained females studied is composed of individuals who uphold self-actualizing values, are responsive to their feelings and free to spontaneously express them, and who manifest a strongly positive self-regard. These strength trained females are significantly different from a comparison group of"non-self-actualizers." They match a comparison group of self-actualizers on five dimensions of self-actualization and closely approximate self-actualizers on the remaining five. The working assumption of the project asserted that the development of muscle mass and strength may influence self-actualization dimensions; this relationship was demonstrated.

Physical Self-Perception

Perceptions of the physical self have emerged as an important component of self-esteem. Self-esteem enhancement is a familiar objective in exercise programs. Researchers have named four aspects of physical self-worth: sports competence, physical condition, body attractiveness and physical strength. The developers of the Physical Self-Perception Profile suggest the perceived importance assigned to each of the four aspects may allow for some degree of self-esteem "customizing" by individuals. This conceptualization facilitated the gathering of information about the physical self-perceptions of the project's group of strength trained females.

When compared to adult overweight females and college-aged females, the strength trained women reported significantly greater feelings of satisfaction, pride, respect and confidence in their physical selves. The amount of importance attached to body attractiveness on the Physical Self-Perception Profile produced an unexpected finding. As dimensions of self-actualization increased in magnitude, these strength trained females reported that body attractiveness was less important to them. The women had reshuffled their priorities with regard to the importance assigned to one aspect of the physical self. Although body attractiveness remains important to them, they placed less emphasis upon the body's external appearance than on its functional ability.

Value and Meaning of Strength Training

In one section of the research questionnaire, each participant responded to six open-ended questions concerning the value and meaning she gives to her newly developed muscle mass and strength. When the responses were reviewed, identifiable themes recurred.

In this self-selected group of 138, a prototypical strength trained female emerged from the responses. For this woman, strength training means improved health and physical competence. She is better prepared for and able to metaphorically lift more in life. While performing the lifts and movements required for this physical activity, she feels exhilarated, confident, self-assured, powerful, happy, strong and sensual. She experiences greater self-confidence in her social interactions, and humorously speaks of her newest acquaintance--the mirror, which now is a friendly collaborator rather than a harsh critic. She believes the developed muscle mass and strength has set her apart as a cultural innovator who is helping to redefine the concept of beauty and femininity.

Challenging the Traditional

This group of 138 strength trained females have developed and maintained their muscle mass and strength--two critical biological markers identified as central to vitality and physical well-being. Learning about the intentional development of muscle mass and strength from a large and remarkably diverse group of strength trained females has illuminated several pathways to explore. The group has expanded their somatic horizons, and thus provides researchers with a new prism through which to observe physical and psychological empowerment. The eating disordered female, the depressed female, the physically or emotionally abused female, or the potential victim of osteoporosis may benefit from the inclusion of strength training as one component of a treatment program.

The impact of strength training has transcended mere physical attributes and proportions. Positively valued self-perceptions of physical self-worth have generalized to overall estimates of self-esteem. The strength trained female is challenging traditional images of femininity by transforming her body according to her own definition of beauty. Thus, she is revolutionizing beliefs about attractiveness, strength and health for all women.

References for "Strong-Minded Women" are available upon request. Please send a self-addressed, stamped envelope to CEU Corner: References, American Fitness, 15250 Ventura Blvd., Suite 200, Sherman Oaks, CA 91403.

RELATED ARTICLE: Describing the 138 Strength Trained Females

Geographic Location 5 San Francisco Bay Area Counties

Fitness Centers Represented 27

Age Range 21-27 (average: 39)

Ethnicity 84% Caucasian 16% other (Black, Asian, Latina, Native America)

Marital Status 41% married 35% single 14% divorced or separated 9% domestic partners

Children 39% yes 61% no

Height 58" - 74" (average: 65")

Weight 96 to 235 pounds (average: 134)

Satisfied with Weight Want to gain: 105 Could lose 10 pounds: 50% Fully satisfied: 20%

Education 80% greater than high school 44% college degree

Self-supporting 40%

Income of the Participant Less than $25,000: 44% Greater than $55,000: 12%

Income Combined/Household Less than $25,000: 21% Greater than $55,000: 53%

Type of Occupation Helping: 30% Influencing: 25% Organizing: 17% Adventuring: 9% Creating: 7% Producing: 1% Analyzing: 1%

Motivation to Commence Strength Training (Top Three Choices) Develop muscle mass and strength Maintain fitness Diet program component

Diana Lynn Smith, Ph.D., holds a doctoral degree in clinical psychology. She lectures in the psychology department of California State University Hayward.

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