The Uruguay round agreement: implications for Pakistan's textiles and clothing sector.

Din, Musleh-Ud ; Abbas, Kalbe

The UR agreement has been widely perceived as constituting a major advance in the process of multilateral liberalisation of trade in goods and services and, when fully implemented, is expected to improve economic efficiency and welfare from the global, national and sectoral standpoints. The present paper explores the implications of the Uruguay Round agreement for Pakistan's textiles and clothing Sector. With the managed trade era in textiles due to be phased out in 205, it is important that the domestic textiles and clothing industry be prepared for a much more competitive environment, both at home as well as in foreign markets. The phasing-out of MFA type restrictions and other trade barriers is generally expected to have positive effects on Pakistan's exports of textiles and clothing in the long run. At the same time, however, the erosion of preferential treatment embodied in the Multi-Fiber Arrangements poses many challenges to the textiles and clothing industry in Pakistan. The emerging scenario of freer trade in textiles and clothing highlights the need to enhance competitiveness in this sector by improving product quality, efficiency of resource use, and productivity. Also, there is a need to advance in the reforms and liberalisation of the economy, and to focus public policy towards addressing the structural problems of the textiles and clothing industry with a view to enabling it to compete better in the more competitive international market.

1. INTRODUCTION

The Uruguay Round (UR), which marked the conclusion of protracted multilateral trade negotiations, resulted in comprehensive agreements on multilateral trade in goods and services within the framework of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The newly created World Trade Organisation (WTO) provides an institutional framework that encompasses all the agreements and legal instruments negotiated in the UR as well as the dispute settlement procedures and provisions for the regular monitoring of policies of the member countries. The UR agreement has been widely perceived as constituting a major advance in the process of multilateral liberalisation of trade in goods and services and, when fully implemented, is expected to improve economic efficiency and welfare from the global, national and sectoral standpoints. An important feature of the UR agreement is the incorporation of new sectors like textiles and clothing within the ambit of the GATT/WTO framework. In view of the fact that the textiles and clothing industry is one of the few sectors in which developing countries enjoy a distinct comparative advantage over industrial countries, the UR agreement holds considerable significance for developing economies like Pakistan.

The present paper seeks to explore the implications of the Uruguay Round agreement for Pakistan's textiles and clothing sector. The paper is organised as follows. Section 2 provides a brief overview of the textiles and clothing industry in Pakistan. Section 3 delineates major elements of the UR agreement on textiles and clothing (ATC). Section 4 spells out opportunities and challenges for the textiles and clothing sector in Pakistan in the post Uruguay Round period; and Section 5 concludes the discussion.

2. THE TEXTILES AND CLOTHING INDUSTRY IN PAKISTAN

The textiles and clothing sector is the mainstay of Pakistan's economy. With a 30 percent share in the value added of the manufacturing sector, the textiles and clothing industry accounts for about 8 percent of the GDP and employs 40 percent of the workforce in the manufacturing sector. The industry started from almost nonexistence in 1947 with a meager size of 78000 spindles and 3000 looms, and that too largely in the unorganised sector. Since then, the industry has made substantial progress, especially in the spinning sub-sector, and now has 442 units, 8.3 million spindles and 10 thousand looms (Table 1).

Growth in the size of textiles industry has been mixed: the number of mills and spindles more than doubled during the 1972-73 to 1998-99 period, whereas the number of looms fell by more than half during the same period (see Appendix). Total production of yarn and cloth as well as capacity utilisation of spindles and rotors registered positive growth rates during the Fifties and the Sixties. The rapid expansion of this industry during these decades was facilitated by the price advantage that Pakistan enjoyed in cotton textiles, due mainly to the domestic availability of raw cotton and cheap labour. Fiscal incentives, high rates of protection and export subsidies further enhanced the profitability of investment in this industry. However, in sharp contrast with its performance in the preceding decades, production in this industry either stagnated or declined during the seventies, and the industry remained under stress in the following decades. This is particularly evident in the case of cloth production, which consistently registered negative average annual growth rates from 1970 to 1998.

It is, however, noteworthy that despite its lackluster performance in recent years, the textiles and clothing industry continues to occupy a leading position in the trade structure of the country, accounting for more than 50 percent of its manufactured exports.

According to Table 2, Pakistan's exports of textiles increased from USD 2167.7 million in 1993-94 to USD 2904.4 million in 1995-96, and then declined to USD 2483.4 million in 1997-98. Cotton yarn and cotton cloth constitute a major proportion of textiles exports. Exports of clothing showed an increasing trend during the period under consideration, rising from USD 1694.8 million in 1993-94 to USD 2456 million in 1997-98. The share of textiles and clothing in total exports stood at 61 percent in 1996-97 and declined slightly to 57.2 percent in 1997-98.

Table 3 highlights destination-wise exports of textiles and clothing in 1997-98. North America is a major market for Pakistan's exports of textiles and clothing: more than 50 percent of exports of hosiery, towels and made-ups and about 49 percent of ready-made garments are marketed in the United States and Canada. Europe ranks second in terms of its share in Pakistan's exports of cotton fabrics, ready-made garments, hosiery, made-ups, and towels. Pakistan's exports of bedwear are mostly concentrated in Europe (50.71 percent), while Asia accounts for a major proportion of cotton yam exports from Pakistan (66.36 percent).

3. THE URUGUAY ROUND AGREEMENT

The global textiles and clothing industry has faced one of the most regulated international trade regimes during the past several decades. To protect the domestic textiles and clothing industry from foreign competition, developed countries have long followed restrictive trade policies in the form of high tariffs, tariff escalation, and non-tariff barriers. The principal obstacle to trade in textiles and clothing has been an array of quantitative restrictions embodied in the Multi-Fiber Arrangements (MFA)--a system of bilaterally negotiated agreements that regulates textiles and clothing exports from developing countries to participating industrial countries. (1)

The Uruguay Round agreement on textiles and clothing emerged after intensive negotiations with the developed countries on the issue of bringing international trade in textiles and clothing under the normal GATT rules. It envisages abolition of decades of discrimination and restrictions on international trade in textiles and clothing through its integration into the multilateral trade discipline under GATT/WTO. The key element of the agreement is the phased elimination of the MFA over a ten-year transition period. The elimination proceeds in four phases, starting with the entry into force of the WTO on January 1, 1995. Importing industrial countries must initially integrate products accounting for at least 16 percent of total (1990) import volume into the WTO, followed by an additional 17 percent and 18 percent, respectively, in the fourth and eighth years; the remaining 49 percent is to be integrated at the end of ten years. It is noteworthy that the phased elimination scheme is back-loaded in that it leaves the major part of the liberalisation to the end of the period. Concurrent with the integration of textile and clothing products, outstanding quotas must be initially expanded by an additional 16 percent, over and above the growth agreed previously under the MFA; an additional 25 percent in the next four years, and 27 percent in the next three years. Table 4 summarises the integration scheme for textiles and clothing under the Uruguay Round agreement.

During the Uruguay Round negotiations, developing countries expressed their apprehensions that the liberalisation of the more important and "sensitive" items would be pushed to the later stage of the transition. To mitigate this possibility, the final agreement requires importers to include at least one product from each of the four groups (tops and yams, fabrics, made-up textiles, and clothing). However, since the agreement does not specify how much from each of these four categories must be liberalised at each phase of the transition period, it still leaves substantial room for discretion on the part of industrial countries in structuring their quota liberalisation. There are also provisions for redistributing quotas in favour of quota-constrained and efficient exporters, and flexibility provisions (to carry over quotas across product lines and time periods) will continue to apply. Exporting countries must also commit to take anti-circumvention measures to deal with rerouting, false declaration of origin, and transshipment.

The agreement establishes transitional safeguard mechanisms in case of temporary surges in imports of products not yet integrated into the WTO or products not currently restrained under the MFA. Developing countries were concerned that this provision could be abused to retain restrictions, thereby effectively negating the intent of the UR. Despite their efforts during the negotiations, they did not succeed in preventing the inclusion of this provision. But they were able to put time limits on these safeguards, which must be applied selectively and can be kept up to a maximum of three years. Also, there is less flexibility in the use of these safeguard measures against small exporters, the least developed countries, wool producers, outward processors, and cottage industries.

In addition to phasing out quantitative restrictions, the UR agreement provides for an average reduction of 22 percent in industrial countries' bound tariffs on textiles and clothing products (Table 5). However, products in these sectors will continue to have a considerable number of tariff peaks (tariffs in excess of 15 percent). After full implementation of the UR, about 28 percent of industrial country imports of textiles and clothing will remain subject to tariff peaks, compared with 35 percent at the start of the UR [GATT (1994)]. Thus, the proportional tariff cuts in this sector will be limited as compared with the average reduction (close to 40 percent) in bound tariffs on industrial products as a whole.

4. IMPLICATIONS FOR THE TEXTILES AND CLOTHING SECTOR

Implementation of the Uruguay Round agreement on textiles and clothing is expected to offer significant opportunities for the expansion of developing countries' trade in textiles and clothing. While these new opportunities on the demand side of international trade are made available to all developing countries through the principle of non-discrimination, the implications of changes in market access conditions for export opportunities may vary for different developing countries and regions. For some countries, the MFA phase-out is likely to be the single most important aspect of the UR agreement, while for others it may relate instead to tariff concessions for textiles as well as other industrial products. The MFA phase-out in itself carries different implications for different textiles and clothing exporters. For the most constrained suppliers, elimination of textiles and clothing quotas should imply significantly increased export opportunities in those sectors. On the other hand, less constrained suppliers may suffer from an erosion of preferences, as they are forced to compete with what had been the more heavily restricted suppliers.

While the Uruguay Round agreement provides tremendous scope for export expansion in general, it also poses many challenges for textiles and clothing exporters like Pakistan. Pakistan is one of the leading producers of raw cotton and this provides a strong raw material advantage for the growth of the export oriented textiles and clothing industry. However, Pakistan has not been able to fully exploit its traditional edge of domestic availability of raw cotton and has not attained the optimum potential of the textiles and clothing industry. (2) The low MFA quota utilisation rates clearly indicate that Pakistan's textiles and clothing industry is facing supply side constraints. In this scenario, the extent to which the country can gain from improved market access opportunities crucially hinges on the ability of its textiles and clothing industry to generate a market-oriented domestic supply response. Encouragement of such a response would require a coherent strategy, involving both the private and the public sectors, to revamp all the segments of the textiles and clothing industry with a view to improving its efficiency and competitiveness.

It must be emphasised that the strategy to maximise gains from improved market access should focus as much on redefining the role of the government as on restructuring the textiles and clothing industry. The textiles and clothing industry has traditionally grown under the umbrella of high tariffs, subsidies, concessionary finances, subsidised cotton prices and a host of other incentives that the government has been providing it from time to time. However, despite enjoying complete protection, the industry has not been able to reciprocate through improved efficiency and competitiveness and has failed to make adequate investment in quality improvement. It is widely recognised that the incentive packages alone cannot help the industry to compete in international markets, and that the export performance of the textiles industry can only be improved by rationalising its cost structure, increasing productivity, and improving the quality of the final product. Therefore, public policy must be geared to resolving the structural problems of the industry rather than to providing short-term solutions. In the following paragraphs, we discuss major policy issues that need to be addressed if the textiles and clothing industry is to face up to the future challenge of fierce global competition.

Firstly, if Pakistan wants to enhance its export earnings through textiles and clothing exports, it has to improve the quality standards starting from raw cotton to finished products. Spinners maintain that a major handicap of the textiles industry in producing fine counts of yam is the low quality of domestically produced cotton. Too little research and development effort has gone into improving the quality of domestic cotton owing to which the country has not been able to develop superior varieties of long staple cotton. Therefore, to ensure the availability of good quality raw cotton to the textiles industry at competitive prices, a long-term cotton policy needs to be devised with particular emphasis on developing medium and long staple varieties of cotton as well as on improving productivity through better crop management techniques. In the short term, however, the spinning sector can take advantage of the government's policy of free trade in cotton to use superior quality imported cotton for the production of higher-count yam. On the other hand, efforts should be focused on quality improvement in fabrics and made-ups through the introduction of modern production facilities in the weaving, processing and made-ups sub-sectors.

Secondly, there is a need to diversify the export base from the traditional cotton-based products to synthetic fibers. Pakistan's exports of textiles and clothing remain heavily concentrated in cotton-based products despite a predominant share of synthetic fibers in the consumption pattern of most major markets. For example, the consumption of synthetic blends as a proportion of total consumption of different fibers in 1992 was 56 percent in the USA, 66 percent in Germany, and 62 percent in Japan [World Bank (1997)]. Thus, Pakistan has effectively shut itself out of a large part of the world market for textiles and clothing products. As the demand for synthetic blends is expected to remain strong in the future, it is imperative that the production capability of synthetic blends be strengthened in the country to take advantage of the growing market for man-made fibers and products.

Thirdly, the key to maximising the gains in the emerging multilateral trade scenario is to focus on value-addition rather than on intermediate products. Pakistan has not been able to make major strides in the export of finished products and its exports remain mostly concentrated in cotton yarn and coarse fabrics. The objective of high value-addition in the textiles and clothing industry cannot be achieved without creating a strong and modern weaving and processing base. The weaving capacity of the textiles industry has been static at 10,000 shuttleless looms for the past many years, which is no match to the quantum jump that the industry has taken in the spinning sector. There is, therefore, a clear need to encourage the establishment of vertically integrated composite textiles units comprising spindles, rotors, shuttleless and power looms, and processing facilities.

Finally, with the managed trade era in textiles due to be phased out in 2005, it is important that the domestic textiles and clothing industry be prepared for a much more competitive environment, both at home as well as in foreign markets. The industry must strive to enhance competitiveness by promoting efficient utilisation of resources like raw material, and financial and human capital. The strength of any industry lies as much in efficiency and productivity as in advantages arising from natural resources and factor endowments. It is, therefore, important that concerted efforts are made to attain competitiveness in all segments of the industry in terms of both unit price and product quality.

5. CONCLUDING REMARKS

The textiles and clothing sector is of strategic importance to Pakistan, accounting for more than 50 percent of its manufactured exports. The phasing-out of MFA type restrictions and other trade barriers is generally expected to have positive effects on Pakistan's exports of textiles and clothing in the long run. At the same time, however, the erosion Of preferential treatment embodied in the Multi-Fiber Arrangements poses many challenges to the textiles and clothing industry in Pakistan. The emerging scenario of freer trade in textiles and clothing highlights the need to enhance competitiveness in this sector by improving product quality, efficiency of resource use, and productivity. Also, there is a need to advance in the reforms and liberalisation of the economy, and to focus public policy towards addressing the structural problems of the textiles and clothing industry with a view to enabling it to compete better in the more competitive international market. Appendix Growth of Textile and Clothing Industry Installed Capacity No. of No. of No. of Spindles Looms Year Units (000) (000) 1972-73 150 3226 29 1973-74 155 3308 29 1974-75 143 3392 29 1975-76 127 3478 29 1976-77 135 3544 29 1977-78 140 3560 26 1978-79 152 3704 27 1979-80 149 3731 26 1980-81 158 3983 25 1981-82 155 4180 25 1982-83 158 4265 24 1983-84 162 4224 24 1984-85 158 4396 23 1985-86 160 4422 19 1986-87 187 4293 17 1987-88 197 4330 16 1988-89 219 4790 17 1989-90 236 5195 16 1990-91 247 5493 15 1991-92 271 6141 15 1992-93 284 6768 14 1993-94 320 8182 14 1994-95 336 8298 14 1995-96 503 8709 14 1996-97 503 8176 10 1997-98 439 8325 10 1998-99 442 8356 10 Growth Rates (%) 1950s 2.85 1.77 3.26 1960s 4.50 4.70 1.55 1970s 3.12 4.07 -1.58 1980s 4.56 -1.56 -4.83 1990s 5.23 6.03 -5.63 Working Capacity No. of No. of Spindle Loom Spindles Looms Hours Hours Year (000) (000) (million) (million) 1972-73 3057 27 22606.0 190.6 1973-74 3034 26 23617.0 192.7 1974-75 2823 25 20438.0 179.2 1975-76 2579 23 20095.0 167.4 1976-77 2650 19 18118.0 138.6 1977-78 2680 15 19776.0 110.5 1978-79 2772 14 20456.0 95.0 1979-80 2841 16 21468.0 99.1 1980-81 3176 13 22217.0 90.5 1981-82 2944 13 22924.0 85.1 1982-83 3062 14 23011.0 78.6 1983-84 3020 12 23683.0 91.6 1984-85 3022 10 33274.0 69.8 1985-86 3158 9 24620.0 64.7 1986-87 3499 9 26836.0 57.8 1987-88 3690 9 29823.0 66.2 1988-89 3966 9 32089.0 67.9 1989-90 4416 8 36170.0 67.5 1990-91 4754 8 39542.0 60.2 1991-92 5260 8 43606.0 58.8 1992-93 5433 6 46364.0 55.5 1993-94 5886 6 47221.0 44.0 1994-95 6023 6 49734.0 41.8 1995-96 6679 5 52239.0 37.1 1996-97 6455 5 53625.0 36.4 1997-98 6566 5 55005.0 37.7 1998-99 6579 5 32570.0 20.6 Growth Rates (%) 1950s 1.93 3.28 10.45 6.58 1960s 1.05 0.42 4.46 2.52 1970s 1.47 -5.65 1.66 -7.65 1980s 3.73 -5.25 5.56 -3.21 1990s 4.70 -9.43 4.83 -0.46 Source: Pakistan Economic Survey (Various Issues). Total Total Yam Cloth Production Production Year (mln.kg) (mln.sq.mtr.) 1972-73 376.1 588.6 1973-74 379.5 592.2 1974-75 351.2 555.9 1975-76 349.7 520.3 1976-77 282.6 408.3 1977-78 297.9 391.3 1978-79 327.8 339.4 1979-80 362.9 342.3 1980-81 374.9 307.9 1981-82 430.2 325.0 1982-83 448.4 335.5 1983-84 431.6 296.6 1984-85 431.7 271.8 1985-86 482.2 253.5 1986-87 586.4 237.9 1987-88 685.0 281.6 1988-89 757.9 269.9 1989-90 911.6 294.8 1990-91 1041.2 292.9 1991-92 1170.7 307.9 1992-93 1219.0 325.4 1993-94 1309.6 314.9 1994-95 1369.7 321.8 1995-96 1495.0 327.0 1996-97 1520.8 333.5 1997-98 1532.3 340.3 1998-99 895.7 220.5 Growth Rates (%) 1950s 7.01 6.92 1960s 5.88 1.88 1970s 1.99 -7.01 1980s 10.37 -0.47 1990s 5.68 2.17 Source: Pakistan Economic Survey (Various Issues).

REFERENCES

Blackhurst, Richard, Alice Enders, and Joseph F. Francois (1995) The Uruguay Round and Market Access: Opportunities and Challenges for Developing Countries. In Will Martin and L. Alan Winters (ed.) The Uruguay Round and the Developing Economies. (World Bank Discussion Papers No. 307.)

Cline, William (1990) The Future of World Trade in Textiles and Apparel. Washington, D. C.: Institute for International Economics.

Francois, Joseph F., Bradley McDonald, and Hakan Nordstrom (1995) Assessing the Uruguay Round. In Will Martin and L. Alan Winters (ed.) The Uruguay Round and the Developing Economies. (World Bank Discussion Papers No. 307.)

GATT (1994) Report on Market Access Resulting from the Uruguay Round Multilateral Trade Negotiations.

Pakistan, Government of (1998-99) Economic Survey, 1998-99. Islamabad: Finance Division, Ministry of Finance. Pakistan, Government of (1997-98) Pakistan's Foreign Trade, Key Indicators: 1997-98. Islamabad: Ministry of Commerce

World Bank (1997) India: Cotton and Textile Industries--Maximising the Potential for Growth in a More Competitive Environment. Washington, D. C.: World Bank. World Trade Organisation (WTO) (1997) Annual Report: 1997. Geneva.

(1) it is widely believed that the MFA has restricted potential imports in major industrial markets, and that growth in the volume of textiles and clothing exports of developing countries has been lower because of the agreement [Cline (1990)].

(2) Pakistan is among the top five cotton-producing countries in the world, but its share in world exports of textiles is only about three percent, less than half of the share of Korea (8.6 percent) [WTO (1997)].

Musleh-ud Din and Kalbe Abbas are Senior Research Economist and Research Economist at the Pakistan Institute of Development Economics, Islamabad. Table 1 Key Indicators of Textile Industry 1994-95 1995-96 1996-97 Number of Mills 336 503 503 Installed Capacity (000 Numbers) Spindles 8298 8709 8176 Rotors 132 142 143 Looms 14 14 10 Working Capacity (000 Numbers) Spindles 6023 6679 6455 Rotors 83 89 89 Looms 6 5 5 Working Capacity as a % of Installed Capacity Spindles 72.6 76.7 79.0 Rotors 62.9 62.7 62.2 Looms 42.9 35.7 50.0 Yarn Production (min kg) 1369.7 1495.0 1520.8 Cloth Production (mln.sq.meters) 321.8 327.0 333.5 1997-98 1998-99 Number of Mills 439 442 Installed Capacity (000 Numbers) Spindles 8325 8356 Rotors 145 146 Looms 10 10 Working Capacity (000 Numbers) Spindles 6566 6579 Rotors 83 69 Looms 5 5 Working Capacity as a % of Installed Capacity Spindles 78.9 78.7 Rotors 57.2 47.3 Looms 50.0 50.0 Yarn Production (min kg) 1532.3 895.7 Cloth Production (mln.sq.meters) 340.3 220.5 Table 2 Structure of Pakistan's Exports of Textiles and Clothing (Million US$) 1993-94 1994-95 1995-96 Textiles 2167.7 2698.4 2904.4 Cotton Yarn 1259.3 1528.1 1540.3 Cotton Thread 4.0 1.9 1.5 Cotton Cloth 820.6 1081.4 1275.9 Cotton Bags 17.3 19.1 24.6 Cotton Waste 62.1 63.2 57.2 Waste Material of Textile Fabrics 4.4 4.7 4.9 Clothing 1694.8 2016.9 2166.8 Towels 129.2 144.8 174.1 Made up Articles 415.0 503.7 601.3 Tents and Canvas 29.2 38.2 39.5 Readymade Garments 612.2 641.7 648.5 Hosiery 509.2 688.5 703.4 Textiles and Clothing 3862.5 4715.3 5071.2 Total Exports 6803.0 8137.0 8707.0 Textiles and Clothing as a % of Total Exports 56.8 57.9 58.2 Textiles and Clothing as a % of GDP 7.6 7.8 8.6 Total Exports as a % of GDP 13.0 13.3 13.5 1996-97 1997-98 Textiles 2750.5 2483.4 Cotton Yarn 1411.5 1159.5 Cotton Thread 1.7 1.8 Cotton Cloth 1262.4 1250.3 Cotton Bags 27.6 23.1 Cotton Waste 41.8 42.2 Waste Material of Textile Fabrics 5.5 6.5 Clothing 2320.6 2456.0 Towels 194.1 200.1 Made up Articles 665.0 754.6 Tents and Canvas 36.2 58.1 Readymade Garments 736.4 746.5 Hosiery 688.9 696.7 Textiles and Clothing 5071.1 4939.4 Total Exports 8320.0 8628.0 Textiles and Clothing as a % of Total Exports 61.0 57.2 Textiles and Clothing as a % of GDP 8.3 7.9 Total Exports as a % of GDP 13.5 13.5 Source: Pakistan (1997-98). Table 3 Destination-wise Exports of Textile and Clothing: 1997-98 (Million US$) Ready- Cotton Cotton made Yarn Fabrics Garments Hosiery North America 64.4 192.6 360.3 408.9 Europe 109.4 332.1 286.2 223.1 Australia -- 57.4 -- -- Middle East 40.2 65.4 29.2 13 Asia 769.4 96.7 -- -- Other 176.1 506.1 70.8 51.7 Percentage Shares North America 5.55 15.4 48.27 58.69 Europe 9.44 26.56 38.34 32.02 Australia 7.69 Middle East 3.47 5.23 3.91 1.87 Asia 66.36 7.73 Other 15.19 40.48 9.48 7.42 Made-ups Excluding Bedwears and Towels Bedwears Towels North America 140.3 116.7 100.3 Europe 82.9 258.0 64.4 Australia 2.7 14.5 -- Middle East -- 16.4 -- Asia -- -- -- Other 19.9 103.2 35.4 Percentage Shares North America 57.08 22.94 50.12 Europe 33.73 50.71 32.18 Australia 1.10 2.85 Middle East 3.22 Asia Other 8.10 20.28 17.69 Source: Pakistan (1997-98). Table 4 Integration Scheme for Textiles and Clothing Growth Rate of Residual Integration Quotas (Based on Previously (Based on 1990 Agreed MFA Growth Rates Import Volume) of Quotas) Stage I 16 percent 16 percent higher growth (January 1, 1995) rate than initially Stage II Further 17 percent Increase by 25 percent (January 1, 1998) (total 33 percent) Stage III Further 18 percent Increase by 27 percent (January 1, 2002) (total 51 percent) End of the 10 Year Remaining 49 percent transition period (total 100 percent) (January 1, 2005) Source: Francois, McDonald, and Nordstrom (1995). Table 5 Developed Country Tariff Reductions by Major Industrial Group Before and After the Uruguay Round Percent Tariff Averages Weighted by Imports from All Sources Before After Percent Reduction All Industrial Products 6.3 3.8 40.0 Fish and Fish Products 6.1 4.5 26.0 Wood, Pulp, Paper, and Furniture 3.5 1.1 69.0 Textiles and Clothing 15.5 12.1 22.0 Leather, Rubber, Footwear 8.9 7.3 18.0 Metals 3.7 1.4 62.0 Chem. and Photographic Supplies 6.7 3.7 45.0 Transport Equipment 7.5 5.8 23.0 Non-electric Machinery 4.8 1.9 60.0 Electric Machinery 6.6 3.5 47.0 Mineral Prod. and Precious Stones 2.3 1.1 52.0 Manuf. Articles n.e.s. 5.5 2.4 56.0 Tariff Averages Weighted by Imports from Developing Countries Before After Percent Reduction All Industrial Products 6.8 4.3 37 Fish and Fish Products 6.6 4.8 27 Wood, Pulp, Paper, and Furniture 4.6 1.7 63 Textiles and Clothing 14.6 11.3 23 Leather, Rubber, Footwear 8.1 6.6 19 Metals 2.7 0.9 67 Chem. and Photographic Supplies 7.2 3.8 47 Transport Equipment 3.8 3.1 18 Non-electric Machinery 4.7 1.6 66 Electric Machinery 6.3 3.3 48 Mineral Prod. and Precious Stones 2.6 0.8 69 Manuf. Articles n.e.s. 6.5 3.1 52 Source: Blackhurst, Enders, and Francois (1995).