Preservice childhood education teachers' perceptions of instructional practices for developing young children's interest in reading.

Al-Barakat, Ali Ahmad ; Bataineh, Ruba Fahmi

Within the context of the increasing attention to reading in educational contexts around the globe, this study uses a semistructured interview to explore 93 Jordanian preservice teachers' perceptions of instructional practices for developing young children's interest in reading. The participants reported on 7 major teacher practices they perceive as instrumental in developing young children's interest in reading. These relate to teaching and learning settings, designing reading materials, establishing a classroom library, making use of the local library, using reinforcement, establishing good relationships with parents, and using information and communication technology as a teaching/learning resource. Based on these findings, several implications for professional practice, professional development, and future research are put forth.

Keywords: reading, instructional practices, perceptions, preservice teaching, Jordan

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Over the past few years, a major trend has come to focus on developing preservice childhood teachers' practices to develop young children's interest in reading during the field experience component of teacher education (Collins, 2005; Louden & Rohl, 2006). This trend is supported by research that demonstrates the effectiveness of deliberately addressing instructional practices for promoting learning for all children (Bataineh & Al-Barakat, 2009; Pajares, 1992; Wilke, 2004).

The development of preservice teachers' practices is closely linked with how they perceive themselves and their role as teachers (Pajares, 1992; Wubbels, 1992). When preservice childhood teachers come to teacher education programs, they bring with them a set of perceptions about how children's interest in reading can best be developed.

Nevertheless, even though teachers' perceptions are colored by the experiences they went through during their own schooling (Calderhead & Robson, 1991; Feiman-Nemser, 1983; Haberman, 1985; Pajares, 1992; Stuart & Thurlow, 2000), they also may be developed, or atleast honed, through teacher education. Teacher education programs are essentially the first step in the teacher's professional development. They allow preservice teachers an outlet not only to construct new perceptions but also to acquire knowledge and skills (Wilke, 2004), which may constitute the foundation for quality instructional practices for developing young children's interest in reading (Pajares, 1992; Wilke, 2004).

Consequently, developing young children's interest in reading is dependent on the effectiveness of teacher education programs that allow preservice teachers opportunities not only to form or modify perceptions about reading, but also to actually practice developing young children's interest in reading. Empirical evidence shows (e.g., Al-Barakat, 2004, 2010; Ihmeideh, 2009) that a more effective teacher education program is one that provides preservice teachers with opportunities to form not only assumptions about the teaching/learning process, but also actual instructional practices for their future classrooms. Thus, preservice practica generally constitute a catalyst and an invaluable opportunity for preservice teachers to move, through actual instruction, from mere theoretical assumptions about developing young children's interest in reading to actual instructional practices for doing so.

To this effect, a growing body of research (e.g., Feiman-Nemser, 1983; Haberman, 1985; Pajares, 1992; Stuart & Thurlow, 2000) emphasizes that teacher educators must not only address issues related to the structure and content of teacher education programs, but also consider the perceptions that preservice teachers bring with them to teacher education and how they develop during practicum. Therefore, there seems to be a need to explore preservice teachers' perceptions about instructional practices for developing young children's interest in reading, which is the primary aim of the current research.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

That all children should be able to read is a matter of universal consensus, for not a hint of controversy surrounds the growing concern for equipping young children with not only the ability to read but also the interest in reading. This suggests that better reading instruction is urgently needed, which, in turn, necessitates that teacher education programs better prepare teachers so that young children can not only learn to read better but also develop a much-needed interest in reading (Bataineh & Al-Barakat, 2009).

For example, education reform movements around the globe emphasize the teacher's substantial role in engaging children in a variety of language-related experiences to develop their ability to read (Al-Barakat, 2010; Bataineh & Al-Barakat, 2009; Burgess, Lundgren, & Pianta, 2001). Besides, no longer are these reforms concerned only with producing a generation capable of identifying familiar words in print. Rather, they seek to develop a genuine inherent interest in reading as an enjoyable, lifelong activity (Freedman-De Vito, 2004; Roberts & Wilson, 2006; Sainsbury, 2004). For example, Freedman-De Vito (2004) claimed that reading is important to children, because not only is it necessary for survival in the world of schools and (later on) universities, but in adult life as well. The ability to learn about new subjects and find helpful information on anything from health problems and consumer protection to more academic research into science or the arts depends on the ability to read. (p. 1)

There also exists empirical evidence that the more children read, the better readers they become, and the more they are read to, the greater is their interest in mastering reading. To this effect, Moats (1999) reported evidence that a child who doesn't learn the reading basics early is unlikely to learn them at all. Any child who doesn't learn to read early and well will not easily master other skills and knowledge, and is unlikely to ever flourish in school or in life. (p. 5)

However, what relatively little research exists on effective instructional practices for improving children's reading and interest in reading provides some insights into the matter. For example, Bishop, Berryman, and Richardson (2001), who examined effective instructional strategies and materials for improving 5-year-old children's reading and interest in reading, reported that effective teachers attempted to set up an "oral rich environment," usually through the use of children's prior or real-life experiences and language-rich environment, to extend their vocabulary and understanding.

Moreover, despite reports that poor reading attitudes do not necessarily correlate with low achievement (Ogle et al., 2003), a good body of research (e.g., Wang, 2000) links reading attitude with literacy development. In addition to reports that attitudes toward reading begin to decline and continue to do so in the intermediate grades (e.g., McKenna & Kear, 1990; McKenna, Kear, & Ellsworth, 1995; Sperling & Head, 2002), research (e.g., Richek, List, & Lerner, 1989) consistently pointed out that attitudes affect children's motivation and subsequent achievement by increasing the amount of time they engage in reading (McKenna et al., 1995; Richek et al., 1989). For example, Roberts and Wilson (2006) claimed that "whether children read or not is determined by their attitudes toward reading. If children do not like reading or they think that reading is boring, their negative attitude toward reading will hinder their reading improvement" (p. 1). The literature provides further evidence that instilling positive attitudes and promoting interest are among the most important school-related practices for developing reading ability (Grann & Lloyd, 1997; Swanson, 1998). Due to their close contact with children, childhood education teachers are the most likely to spark children's interest in reading, which begins with capitalizing on their natural curiosity and desire to discover. To do so, teachers should structure reading events to suit children's interests (Beers, 1996) and help them catch the enthusiasm for books (Hildebrand, 1997), as well as ensuring that learning environments are abundant with print materials to spark and foster their interest in reading (Beach, 1996).

RATIONALE, PURPOSE, AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Researchers have made claims about the teacher's potentially central role in developing children's interest in reading to ensure a generation of critical readers (Fadolallah, 1995; Grann & Lloyd, 1997). The authors hypothesize that preservice childhood education teachers possess adequate theoretical knowledge of practices that may effectively develop young children's interest in reading, which, through their collaboration with cooperating inservice teachers during practicum, may be a catalyst for improving the cooperating teacher's and their own instructional practice.

Despite a plethora of educational literature attesting to the value of children's literature and reading interests, it seems that finding ways to effectively develop children's interest in reading has not been adequately addressed. By the same token, to the best of the authors' knowledge, no research has examined the teacher's role in developing young children's interest in reading. To this effect, Bataineh and Al-Barakat (2005) claimed that teachers cannot develop young children's reading interest without actually understanding their own potential role in the reading process.

The current study is designed to explore preservice teachers' perceptions of instructional practices for developing young children's interest in reading. The findings are hoped to empower teachers, both in pre- and inservice practice, to develop pupils' interest in reading, especially in light of children's complaints that teachers, with such routine practices as assigning too much homework and not offering any incentives for readers, hardly ever contribute to sparking an interest in reading (Bataineh & Al-Barakat, 2005). To achieve its purpose, the authors seek answers to the question, "What are preservice teachers' perceptions of instructional practices for developing pupils' interest in reading during practicum?"

The authors have opted to target preservice, rather than inservice, teachers for two reasons: (1) the respondents were selected from those enrolled in their final year practicum at the program in which the authors teach, a transitional stage between teacher training and actual teaching practice, and (2) these teachers are believed to be change agents, as they are about to join the labor force. As they stand now, each works alongside one or more cooperating teachers. The authors are hoping that these preservice teachers' proximity to and collaboration with their cooperating teachers would constitute an outlet through which each may affect and be affected by the other. In other words, the authors are hoping that the cooperating teachers will not only train the respondents, but also hone their own practices to better promote their students' reading and inform the practices of their younger wards.

In addition to developing the research base in reading-related instructional practices, there is a pressing need to examine relationships between these practices and children's reading development. The authors hope to pave the way for such research through identifying the instructional practices perceived to affect pupils' interest in reading. Subsequent research may probe into the relationship between these practices and the children's actual interest in reading and development as readers.

METHOD, SAMPLING, INSTRUMENT, AND PROCEDURES

Even though quantitative methods allow practitioners to collect and statistically assess large amounts of data, one may need to collect descriptively rich data that these methods are incapable of obtaining. As qualitative methods focus more on understanding an individual's views of the world and his or her experiences in a particular context and point in time (Merriam, 2002), the authors strive to gain an in-depth understanding (Bogdan & Biklen, 2003) of preservice teachers' perceptions of instructional practices for developing young children's interest in reading without having to worry about generalizing the findings beyond this particular inquiry, which aims to generate rich, descriptive details from a relatively small group of participants (Merriam, 2002).

The methodology used in this research is the interview, involving a detailed examination of preservice teachers' perceptions of instructional practices for developing young children's interest in reading. The semistructured interview is a widely used tool to access participants' experiences and their inner perceptions, attitudes, and feelings of reality. It is known to encourage two-way communication between the interviewer and interviewee, not to mention provide researchers with the answers to their questions and the reasons for those answers (Zhang & Wildemuth, 2006).

Furthermore, the advantages of using the interview are a greater depth of response and freedom for the interviewer to extend and probe more deeply into the responses of the sample (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2000; Robson, 1997); a more personal nature, compared, for example, to questionnaires, which is bound to result in better response rates; an ability to obtain more complex information and greater understanding; more control by the interviewer over the flow and sequence of questions, for it is often important to ask a particular question after others have been answered (List, 2005); and the ability to modify the interview schedule after the initial results, which is impossible, say, with a questionnaire.

However, the interview suffers from limitations. The most important limitations are the time and relative difficulty of data analysis, fatigue, and the potential bias resulting from personal involvement with interviewees (Breakwell, Hammond, & Fife-Schaw, 1995; Wimmer & Dominick, 1997).

The respondents of the study are 93 preservice childhood education teachers enrolled in a 12-week, school-based practicum in their final semester of the undergraduate program in Elementary Education at the College of Education at Yarmouk University (Jordan). During practicum, preservice teachers are offered the opportunity to apply learning theory to practice as they engage in activities ranging from observation to application and evaluation of classroom management, teaching, learning, and assessment under the supervision of a cooperating teacher and a college supervisor. Usually, they observe for 2 to 4 weeks, assist cooperating teachers for 2 to 4 weeks, and teach unassisted for 4 to 8 weeks--depending on the student's skills and abilities. As part of the practicum, all preservice teachers participate in a weekly seminar session with their college supervisor in which they reflect on their practice and get assistance on an as-needed basis.

Each of these teachers has studied a minimum of 105 credit hours on such topics as child development, psychology, and curriculum development, in addition to theoretical prerequisites to the practicum. The prerequisites introduced them to the major approaches to childhood education and the basics of curriculum design. The graduates of this program, known as childhood education teachers, customarily become teachers of all subject matters (viz., Arabic language, mathematics, science, social studies, and religion), except English, to 1st- through 4th- basic grade pupils in Jordanian public and private schools.

The authors designed an interview schedule (1) based on their collective experience and a thorough review of the literature. The initial interview schedule, which consisted of eight questions, was validated by a jury of seven professors of early childhood education, curriculum and instruction, measurement and evaluation, language teaching, and applied linguistics, who made a number of suggestions that resulted in modifying the wording of two questions, adding one question, combining two questions into one, and deleting one question altogether.

The resulting schedule consisted of seven questions, piloted on 13 respondents who were excluded from the sample of the study. Among other questions, the respondents were asked to speculate on the type of practices they would use to develop young children's interest in reading in their own teaching practice the following year, and whether they believe that instructional practices could actually contribute to the development of children's interest in reading.

To collect the data, the authors obtained the interviewees' consent to participate and arranged the interview appointments. The respondents were informed about the study and the purpose of the interview and ensured of the confidentiality of their responses. The interviewer made serious attempts to establish rapport and put each interviewee at ease before conducting the actual interview. The length of the interview, at which one or both authors were present, ranged between 20 and 35 minutes per respondent. Each interview was audiotaped and immediately transcribed (with the interviewee's prior consent), and each transcript was shown to the respective respondent to verify whether it truthfully represented his or her responses. The respondents also were asked if they wanted to add or delete anything, but they all indicated their satisfaction with their initial responses, which may be taken as additional evidence of the reliability of the collected data.

With a 16-day interval between the two administrations, the authors analyzed the transcripts and found no substantial differences in the participants' responses in the two interviews. Then, the authors sought the help of a third colleague from the Department of Elementary Education, who did an independent analysis of the transcripts. The two analyses were compared, and only minimal differences were noted, which was taken as an indication of the reliability of the interview schedule and the analysis of the data it collected.

To analyze the data, the authors used grounded theory, whereby no a priori classification was used, but rather the categories and the subcategories of the analysis emerged from the data as follows:

* Each transcript was typed on a separate sheet of paper.

* Each transcript was carefully read and the responses coded.

* Similar ideas were put into subcategories that were, in turn, lumped into main categories.

* A colleague from the Department of Elementary Education was asked to retrace Steps 2 and 3 above to establish the reliability of the analysis. No substantial differences were detected on either the sub- or main categories.

* Frequencies and percentages were calculated for the responses, along with the subcategories produced by the analysis.

* The data analysis revealed a number of findings, which are presented below.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

The initial analysis of the data reveals that the respondents perceived teacher practices to affect young children's interest in reading in seven major categories. These categories were labeled as teaching and learning practices, designing reading materials, establishing a classroom library, making use of the local library, using reinforcement, establishing good relationships with parents, and using information and communication technology. Each of these categories is presented and discussed below.

Teaching and Learning Practices

More than 75% of the respondents perceived classroom practices to play a key role in encouraging young children to form an interest in and good attitudes toward reading, as shown in excerpts l through 4 below.

Teachers should offer young children a range of opportunities to converse about what they read. (1)

If the teacher's instructional practices guide his/her pupils to think about the questions raised in the classroom and give them opportunities to read literature to find answers to their inquires, I think that this teacher will very well contribute to developing these children's interest in reading. (2)

To be honest, I believe that, of all people, the teacher is the only one who can develop young children's interest in reading. Today, I have given my class various books to give them ideas about what they can do to help people who are visually impaired. (3)

Teachers should strive to steer their pupils to read literature to consolidate the topics contained in the school curriculum. (4)

Excerpts 1 through 4 above indicate that the respondents perceived the teacher to play an instrumental role in developing children's interest in reading. These excerpts, as well as others given by the respondents, point out certain teacher practices that contribute to developing young learners' interest in reading. Most recurrent among these are the following:

* Providing children with opportunities to talk about what they read inside and outside the classroom, individually and in groups (one-on-one, pairs, small groups, and whole groups). This also relates to the teacher's role in encouraging children to read different types of materials, which is consistent with Morrow's (1992, 2001) claim that the discussion of stories is one of the best procedures to contribute not only to increasing children's willingness to read, but also to developing their personalities as active rather than passive recipients of their teachers' ideas. This is especially important if one keeps in mind that a major aim of children's literature is not only to encourage a love of reading, but also to develop young children's personalities (Al-Barakat, 2004; Allington & Guice, 1998; Lehman, 1996).

* Using different media for presenting enjoyable and illustration-rich reading materials to foster comprehension. If children become avid readers because they enjoy reading, they will most likely turn to literature for a variety of purposes as they grow older (e.g., pleasure, advice). This result demonstrates the importance of using pictures and illustrations to help young children learn to read, which is further corroborated by Tronbacke and Ingemar (1996), who claim that pictures not only develop young learners' interest in reading but also positively affect their language learning, particularly those who are at the midlevel and lower-level reading ability levels (Daneman & Ellis, 1995; O'Neil & Kitson, 1996).

* Providing young children with reading materials that would potentially satisfy their curiosity and help them find answers to their own questions. Educational literature (e.g., Hildebrand, 1997) regards questioning an important technique to be encouraged by teachers, because children are normally more enthusiastic about finding answers to their own questions. This is in line with the principles of learner-centered instruction, as it shows literature as a resource for developing children's thinking as creators, rather than passive recipients, of knowledge. In this context, "Children are active learners, drawing on direct social and physical experience as well as culturally transmitted knowledge to construct their own understandings of the world around them" (Bredekamp & Copple, 1997, p. 13).

* Encouraging young children to use literature inside and outside the classroom as a resource to achieve learning outcomes and enable teachers to link curricular content with appropriate literature to stimulate children's interest in reading. Al-Barakat (2004) concluded that integrating literature into instruction is a key to good learning, which is consistent with claims (e.g., Morrow, 1992, 2001) pertaining to the significance of literacy-related experiences in developing children's enthusiasm for and interest in reading.

The findings in this category provide evidence that preservice teachers perceive teachers as instrumental in developing children's interest in reading through a variety of classroom activities, which is consistent with reports that instructional practices not only support children's interest in reading but also foster their learning to read (Neuman, Copple, & Bredekamp, 2000).

Designing Reading Materials

The analysis reveals that most of the respondents reportedly spend time designing reading materials for the purpose of developing their pupils' reading, as shown in Excerpts 5 through 7 below. First, I use the reading passages in the textbook, but when I do not find the proper materials for developing my pupils' reading, I either pick other texts or design my own. (5) I ask my pupils to read some of the materials I design myself. These engage them in reading at their leisure, because they take into account their specific needs and interests. (6) Because a lot of the reading materials in the textbook are not appropriate for my pupils' reading level, experience taught me that the teacher should at least design some materials to suit his/her pupils' levels, especially ones which are supported by graphic illustrations and pictures to suit different levels and heighten children's interest in reading. (7)

These excerpts demonstrate the respondents' perception of the teacher's need to design materials to suit his/her pupils' levels and encourage them to read. To this end, the following key issues are addressed:

* Designing his or her own reading materials, a teacher can cater to his or her pupils' particular needs and interests since he or she is the most likely person to identify these needs. Previous accounts, such as those of Dewey (1916), suggest that children actively construct knowledge through interacting with the world around them. Thus, connecting reading with everyday life experiences has the potential to provide children with an ideal environment for active learning.

* Designing his or her own reading materials allows the teacher to accommodate his or her pupils' reading levels. Well-designed supplementary materials are known to enhance classroom instruction (Bataineh & Al-Barakat, 2009; National Reading Panel, 2000; National Research Council, 1998; Vaughn, Gersten, & Chard, 2000) and help struggling readers learn to read (Elbaum, Vaughn, Hughes, Moody, & Schumm, 2000; Fletcher & Lyon, 1998). More specific to Jordanian learners, Bataineh and Al-Barakat (2005) identified the difficulty of comprehending reading materials as one of the obstacles to sparking an interest in reading.

* Calls for the use of color, graphics, and illustrations in designing reading materials point out the respondents' awareness of the significance of these artifacts for developing children's interest in reading. Educational literature (e.g., Farris, Werderich, Nelson, & Fuhler, 2009; Kirschenbaum, 2006; Schatmeyer, 2007) suggests that colorful illustrations are a powerful stimulus to learning. For example, Schatmeyer (2007) suggested that reading materials for young children should contain sufficient illustrations to help them comprehend reading texts, for they not only support the story line but also "pad" the text that, albeit longer, can be read quickly.

Establishing a Classroom Library

In spite of the fact that almost every Jordanian school has a library where pupils check out books to meet their various reading needs, the vast majority of the respondents reported a need for establishing a library in every classroom, as shown in Excerpts 8 through 11 below. Establishing a library, a book corner at least, is important. It encourages young children to have a constant contact with reading. (8) Every teacher should start a simple library in his/her classroom to direct children to use it in the reading or other lessons. I believe that the books in the school library are insufficient for all the pupils. My own pupils cannot sometimes borrow books from the school library due to the high demand by other pupils. (9) At the beginning of every school year, school administrations should allocate a specific budget to establish classroom libraries, especially in the early childhood education, in which children must be exposed to books at all times. (10) I believe that the good teacher, who tries to develop his pupils' interest in reading, makes every effort to establish a classroom library. He/she can provide this library with children's literature, which can support the school curriculum. (11)

Excerpts 8 through 11 show that a classroom library is perceived to play a key part in promoting young children's interest in reading, because the child's exposure to literature in the classroom may readily develop his or her interest in reading. The respondents seem to justify the need for classroom libraries using the following arguments:

* The availability of books in the classroom is bound to encourage children to read, which is in line with Morrow's (2001) claims that children in classrooms with literature collections read 50% more books than children in classrooms with no such collections.

* An inadequate number of books in the school general library, which may be attributed to the growing numbers of pupils in Jordanian schools as a result of successive waves of immigrants from neighboring countries.

* Supporting the topics of the school curriculum, which is also consistent with Morrow's (2001) call that children's exposure to literature be frequently integrated with the curriculum to help teachers generate interest in and enthusiasm for reading.

Making Use of the Local Library

About 60% of the respondents believed that urging children to use the local library encourages them to read in their spare time, as shown in Excerpts 12 through 15 below. I encourage my pupils to visit the local library to get them to check out books or just read them there. (12) I often assign simple language exercises for my pupils to do in the local library, since they can rely on reading materials that, I hope, would heighten their interest in reading. (13) Since our school is of the few which do not have a library, I encourage my pupils to go to the local library to read in groups on both school days and holidays. This encourages them to read in their free time, especially those who are reluctant readers. (14) I urge friends to read in the local library so that they can encourage one another. (15)

The common denominator in these responses is the perception that teachers often steer children to local libraries to read materials that can foster their interest in reading. These responses also point to a perceived tendency by teachers to use peer pressure to encourage children to read through group library visits. It seems that this is effective for children who do not appear to perceive reading as important and who might discourage others from reading. Thus, prompting children to read in groups not only encourages them to build interest in reading, but also allows them opportunities to grow as readers.

Research (e.g., Dresang & Kotrla, 2003; Lance, 2002; Michie & Chaney, 2000; Sloan, 2009) suggests that school libraries have a positive effect on student achievement. More specifically, the idea that local libraries could help children develop an interest in reading is consistent with reports (e.g., Farris et al., 2009; Library and Archives Canada [LAC], 2006) showing that libraries generate children's interest in reading by exposing them to a variety of enjoyable reading matter. Furthermore, library programs allocated for childhood education pupils are found to play a key role in addressing the problem of aliteracy, or being able to read but lacking the motivation to do so (LAC, 2006). Empirical evidence (Dresang & Kotrla, 2003; Lance, 2002; Michie & Chaney, 2000) suggests that the role of the library should be appreciated, as it provides children with books to read at their leisure for a variety of uses, such as schoolwork, personal entertainment, and social experience.

Using Reinforcement

Even though the use of reinforcement is still a matter of controversy, following arguments of inherent inappropriateness, counter-productiveness, and even harmfulness (e.g., Kohn, 1993; Packard, 1977), as well as counterarguments of its empirically proven value (e.g., Flora, 2004), reinforcement is a recurrent theme in the current data. However, even though they seem to endorse its value for learning, the respondents are somewhat reserved in their perceived use of reinforcement. About 73% of the sample reported that children should not be categorically reinforced, but rather only if they make a marked effort to develop their interest in reading, as illustrated in Excerpts 16 through 20.

Whenever a pupil asks a question in the classroom, the teacher should ask the rest of the class if anyone has read anything that could help answer that question. He/she should immediately reinforce that with either praise or material rewards. (16)

A good procedure to develop children's interest in reading is reinforcement. For instance, the teacher should reinforce a pupil when he/she reads any type of literature by allowing him/her an opportunity to read it or report on it on the school morning broadcast. (17)

A teacher should use presents to reward any pupil who voluntarily reads on his/her own. (18)

I think children will be encouraged to read if we give them some rewards, such as books or CD-ROMs, to read on their own. (19)

An effective way to encourage children to read independently is for teachers to organize or get their pupils to participate in school or local reading competitions. (20)

Excerpts 16 through 20 point out that children's curiosity and desire to know should be used to motivate them to engage in reading activities. Nevertheless, using reinforcement to motivate children to read should be based on the following:

* Awarding children tangible and/or moral reinforcement when they share ideas they have read in response to questions or classroom activities. This is appropriate for creating and maintaining an environment conducive to the development of children's interest in reading, which is in line with Zirpoli's (1995) claim that positive reinforcement is frequently used to teach, maintain, or strengthen a variety of learning behaviors.

* Focusing on tangible reinforcement, such as storybooks or CD-ROMs, to generate interest in reading. Schatmeyer (2007) pointed out that providing children with books they can and want to read is one of the most effective ways to assist readers in general and struggling readers in particular.

* Participating in literary competitions or activities in- and outside the school is an effective way to stimulate children's motivation to read. According to Bataineh and Al-Barakat (2005), failing to do so is one of the obstacles that impede developing children's interest in reading.

In short, respondents repeatedly mentioned using reinforcement to stimulate children's motivation to read during the interviews. One respondent said that "reinforcement is essential to stimulate children to read, for with proper reinforcement, even poor readers will be encouraged to read" (21). This points out the teacher's role in promoting children's interest in reading, as he or she helps them build good experiences, which may promote a life-long interest in reading.

These findings are in line with those of previous research (e.g., Gottfried, 1990; Guthrie, Wigfield, Metsala, & Cox, 1999; Hidi & Harackiewicz, 2000; Wigfield & Guthrie, 1997) that considers reading motivation a substantial correlate of reading comprehension in later elementary grades. Guthrie et al. (1999), for example, conclude that motivation is the "preeminent predictor" of children's frequent reading, regardless of their reading ability. Thus, stimulating children's motivation to read is of paramount importance, especially in light of evidence that poor motivation correlates with poor reading ability (Morgan & Fuchs, 2007).

Establishing Good Relationships With Parents

Few respondents (about 16%) addressed the teacher's role in establishing relations with parents for the purpose of developing children's interest in reading. The analysis uncovers the teacher's potentially instrumental role in getting parents involved in fostering their children's emotional growth as readers, as shown in Excerpts 22 through 27 below. Teachers must talk to parents at teacher-parent meetings to encourage them to allow their children an abundant supply of interesting storybooks and other reading materials. (22) Parents should be made familiar with the criteria of selecting the books, which instill in their children an aptitude for learning to read and learn about life. If the parents do not know these, I believe, it should be entrusted to the teacher to do so. (23) Teachers should let parents know that their children's potential interest in reading depends on their interaction with their children during the course of the reading process. (24) Teachers have the responsibility to educate parents on the importance of reading to their children at home and particularly at bedtime. (25) I believe that the school should make it one of its priorities to contact parents to encourage them to involve their children in literacy-related activities. (26) Providing parents with, or helping them locate, screening tests to measure the extent of their children's willingness to read is useful, for it helps parents find out important information about their children's growth as readers. (27)

These excerpts highlight the parents' role in developing children's reading interest, one which may be dependent on the extent to which teachers establish a working relationship with these parents. Therefore, preservice teachers who are not aware of their own role in establishing relationships with parents, nor with ways to involve these parents in developing their children's interest in reading, may put themselves and their pupils at a disadvantage, as they may miss out on a vital resource (Feiler et al., 2008; Power, 1992). These findings are also consistent with research demonstrating that children who are read to by parents or other adults during their preschool years subsequently gain positive attitudes toward reading, increased confidence and motivation to read, and enhanced reading and writing skills (Bettelheim & Zelan, 1982; Grimmett & McCoy, 1980; Ihmeideh, 2009; Spiegel, 1981).

Teachers could use one or more of the following strategies to establish relationships with parents to get them involved in their children's development as readers:

* Organizing meetings with parents to raise their awareness of their potential role in developing their children's interest in reading. Parents should be encouraged to buy books for their children according to selection criteria that contribute to creating and maintaining an interest in and positive attitudes toward reading. Teachers also could provide parents with up-to-date book lists, often made available online by national and international reading associations, which may encourage children's life-long interest in reading. To this effect, Hildebrand (1997) pointed out that teachers can help parents get appropriate books into their homes by ordering them through the school.

* Showing parents how to interact with their children through reading literature, which may raise children's awareness of the value of reading, especially if they take part in the selection and execution of the reading task (Al-Barakat, 2010; Morrow, 2001).

* Getting children involved in reading books at home helps them develop positive attitudes toward reading. The respondents pointed out that parents need to read frequently to their children, a practice also suggested by Hildebrand (1997) that not only develops children's interest in reading, but also helps them learn vocal inflection and practice reading in highly motivating interactions.

* Providing parents with screening tests to measure their children's competencies in and attitudes toward reading is an effective means to gauge children's emerging interest in reading. The respondents stressed the importance of finding out whether a child enjoys reading and, then, for the teacher to advise parents of instructional practices to motivate him/her to develop an interest in reading. Among these practices, parents may encourage their children to join reading circles, attend story times, check out library books, and experience a wide range of reading-related activities besides reading (Beers, 1996; Ihmeideh, 2009).

Using Information and Communication Technology

A few respondents (about 18%) expressed a need for using information and community technology (ICT) as a resource for developing children's reading skills. They pointed out that ICT should be integrated into all aspects of the teaching/learning process, and that developing children's interest in reading is inevitable when ICT is used, as shown in Excerpts 28 through 30 below. If stories are useful in developing children's interest in reading when told by the teacher, I think that their value doubles when presented by technology. (28) The Ministry of Education should provide teachers with incentives to write e-books and design software and websites for teaching reading to young children. Also, children should be encouraged to read e-books to heighten their interest in and create positive attitudes towards reading. (29) I think that there should be at least one computer in every classroom to be used as a resource to encourage children and allow them opportunities to read. (30)

The excerpts above point to a perceived role of ICT in developing children's interest in reading. Computer software has been hailed as a good medium for engaging children in literacy-related activities, thus not only developing their interest in reading, but also building lifelong reading habits (Balajthy, Reuber, & Damon, 1999).

Because ICT offers different advantages, such as sound, music, animations, and clarity of print, it has the potential to heighten children's interest in reading (Alali, 2007; Perkinson, 1996; Wepner & Ray, 2000). This is also consistent with reports by the Education Development Center (EDC, 2004) that young children's motivation to read increases when using hypermedia-based software, and with research from Jong and Bus (2004) showing that electronic books engage children in autonomous reading through meeting their developmental needs without requiring much adult support.

PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS

The current findings on preservice teachers' perceptions of instructional practices to develop young children's interest in reading constitute a good starting point for identifying perceived instructional practices and supportive scaffolding for further research. The study concludes that as the teacher attempts to develop the child's personality, he or she also should help this child learn to enjoy reading individually and with others. To achieve this, the authors suggest that (pre- and inservice) childhood education teachers take the following into account when thinking of practices to encourage young children to read and develop a lifelong interest in reading:

* Allow children opportunities to understand and manipulate language, especially in light of reports that early literacy activities contribute to children's later development and lifelong interest in reading

* Provide children with opportunities for accurate and fluent reading to allow them to practice letter-sounds relationships

* Use interesting stories to develop language comprehension--whether it be by reading to children or having them read themselves, individually and in groups--to emphasize the personal and social aspects of learning to read

* Support parents' knowledge and raising their awareness of their role in their children's language and literacy development through increasing their involvement in literacy activities at home

* Make use of research-based criteria for selecting appropriate reading materials to ensure developing young children's interest in reading

* Show enthusiasm and encouraging children's natural curiosity to foster their interest in reading

* Allow for individual differences among children to avoid causing frustration and negative attitudes toward reading in less able ones.

Based on the findings of the study, the authors recommend that a follow-up study be conducted to gauge teachers' actual use of these practices in the classroom, which would help get a more insightful picture into teachers' actual classroom practices for developing young children's interest in reading.

DOI: 10.1080/02568543.2011.556520

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Ali Ahmad Al-Barakat

Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah Al-Mukaramah, Saudi Arabia

Ruba Fahmi Bataineh

Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan

NOTE

(1.) To obtain a copy of the instrument, contact the corresponding author at [email protected].

Submitted October 24, 2009; accepted August 24, 2010.

Address correspondence to Ruba F. Bataineh, Ph.D., Department of Curriculum and Instruction, College of Education, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan 211-63. E-mail: [email protected] and [email protected]