Sport Marketing Quarterly's top 20 in 20 years.

Lough, Nancy L. ; Brann, Matthew L.

Anniversaries are not only a time of celebration, they are also a time of reflection. So it is only natural that as we planned for this special issue celebrating the 20th anniversary of Sport Marketing Quarterly (SMQ), we also reflected on the abundance of quality research articles that have been published in the journal during the past two decades.

The review and examination of published work in SMQ led to the selection of the top 20 articles of the journal's first 20 years. The "top 20 in 20" were chosen by inaugural SMQ editor Dallas Branch, former SMQ editor and past president of the Sport Marketing Association Bill Sutton, current SMQ editor Nancy Lough, and the editorial staff of Fitness Information Technology, which has served as the publisher of the journal since its inception. The selection of articles was meant to provide readers with a sense of how sport marketing research has evolved during the past two decades. We found that revisiting some of the fine scholarship that has been published in SMQ during this time provided a meaningful view into the evolution of sport marketing as a field, as well as sport marketing research as a scholarly endeavor.

To fully understand this 20-year evolution, a bit of historical context is needed. Sport Marketing Quarterly was the first academic journal to focus on sport marketing, and therefore the first to bring this key content area to the forefront of the broader fields of marketing and sport management. As a pioneering venture, SMQ represented the first step in recognizing that sport marketing needed its own specialized literature (Pitts & Mahony, 1997). From the beginning, SMQ was touted as "the first publication of its kind that bridges the gap between knowledge conveyed in the sport marketing classroom and the realities of employment as sport marketing professionals" (Ostrow, 1992, inside front cover). Contributors were asked to "address marketing promotions and research strategies in the sport world from two perspectives, the sport marketing practitioner and the academician" (Schoenadel, 1992, p. 5). The challenge to "bridge the gap" between academe and industry was unique and formidable.

Despite criticism by some who believed the gap could not be bridged, editors and contributors to SMQ pursued the mission and thereby created the work that continues to serve as a beacon within the growing field of study known as sport management. Taglines published over the years reflected an emphasis on making the literature speak to both academicians and practitioners. "For professionals in the business of marketing sport" (Vol. 1, No. 1, 1992, p. 1) eventually gave way to "Where research meets practice" (Vol. 7, No. 1, 1998, p. 1). Today, our vision statement reads, "To be the journal of choice for authors who wish to create and disseminate intellectual contributions in the field of sport marketing and for practitioners who seek to apply this knowledge to the sport industry."

Seemingly since the inception of sport management as a field of study, the theory versus practice debate has challenged sport marketing researchers. With the SMQ tagline "... bridging the gap between theory and practice ..." we have acknowledged the debate and simultaneously redirected the conversation. Is it realistic to think that SMQ can serve both academicians and practitioners? If a scholarly publication is too practically oriented, the journal might have difficulty being considered a top-tier outlet for tenure and promotion purposes. If, on the other hand, it is too theoretical, it might not be as user friendly for practitioners. In response to the theory versus practice debate, Stotlar (2004) argued, "Those who propose theory without a connection to practice are as misguided as practitioners who disregard relevant theory" (p. 63). Over the years, SMQ has demonstrated through the research it has published that the demarcation of theoretical and practice-oriented research is simply unnecessary and as such SMQ has set out to answer the call to bridge the academician-practitioner divide.

In response to this challenge, scholarship chosen for inclusion in the top 20 in 20 represents a broad perspective, including conceptual pieces, descriptive studies, industry analysis, and scale development efforts. We recognize that scholarship is critical to the development of sport marketing knowledge, and theoretical research and development are essential to the foundation of the corresponding body of knowledge. As Pitts (2002) suggested, "a body of knowledge that includes all known facts, theories, and principles about a subject is necessary for the continued and sustained growth of an academic field" and "should represent the full picture of the field; it is what students need to know to work in the field" (p. 88). As such, what follows is an overview of the top 20 articles, in chronological order, selected to serve as examples of the emerging body of knowledge published in the first 20 years of Sport Marketing Quarterly.

Tapping new markets: Women as sport consumers (Vol. 4, No. 4, 1995), Dallas D. Branch

As one of the first to recognize the potential of women as sport consumers, Branch opened the dialogue for discussion of emerging or new market segments. In this article, he acknowledged the growing impact of women on a dynamic sport industry. With data demonstrating women accounted for an increasing share of sport consumption dollars, and women were becoming sport consumers at a rate paralleling men in the 18-24 age category, Branch felt this trend warranted recognition and examination. He pointed to incidences of sport "softening" the presentation of the core product, as well as humanizing and socializing sporting events, as direct responses to the identification of women as a new (in 1995) market to target. The 1990s decade offered some of the first studies focused on women as sport consumers, along with women's sport as a marketable product. As a result, a well-educated sport marketer today values a broader diversity of consumers. Marketing textbooks now acknowledge that the female fan base for the mainstream men's sports is nearing equity, with women representing 43% of NFL fans and 46% of MLB and NBA fans (Mullin, Hardy & Sutton, 2007). Additionally, case studies examining women's sport properties such as the LPGA and WNBA have appeared in multiple textbooks, as well as SMQ.

Factors affecting corporate sponsorship of women's sports (Vol. 5, No. 2, 1996), Nancy L. Lough

With increasing visibility and influence in the 1990s, women were gaining value as a viable target market. Women's sport was simultaneously proving to be an avenue to reach the newly recognized market. Accordingly, corporations were finding they could establish an image through association with women's sport that resonated with women and created a unique avenue for addressing a specific clientele.

Accessing buyers and product users in the immediate audience was viewed as cost-effective in terms of sponsorship dollars invested. The use of women's sport as a vehicle for achieving marketing objectives was identified as "cutting edge" and an effective strategy for sorting through the cluttered environment. Similarly, women as a target market were perceived by sponsors to respond more favorably to image messages than to blatant sales messages. Most notably, sponsors were found to be more interested in promoting women athletes than in promoting women's sport. The results of this study identified positioning and image as significant sponsorship components warranting further evaluation. Scholars interested in exploring this budding area of research were provided two distinct directions, marketing women's sport or marketing to women as sport consumers.

Creating and fostering fan identification in professional sports (Vol. 6, No. 1, 1997), William A. Sutton, Mark A. McDonald, George R. Milne, and John Cimperman

Through development of their conceptual framework, the authors discussed three distinct levels of fan identity (social fans, focused fans, vested fans), four managerial factors or correlates (team characteristics, organizational characteristics, affiliation characteristics, and activity characteristics), and two managerial benefits (decreased price sensitivity and decreased performance-outcome sensitivity). All components combine to inform four strategies for increasing fan identification. Those strategies include to increase team/player accessibility to the public, increase community involvement activities, reinforce the team's history and tradition, and create opportunities for group affiliation and participation. Given the interest in building upon known motives to enhance levels of identity among a fan base, this article still serves as a model for sport organizations intent on developing fan identity using a pragmatic approach.

The foreign invasion of the American sporting goods market (Vol. 7, No. 3, 1998), Lawrence W. Fielding and Lori K. Miller

In this article, Fielding and Miller examined how "American trade policies initiated after the Second World War opened American sporting goods markets to foreign competitors during the 1960s and 1970s" (p. 19). The lessons learned were pertinent and instructive. Fielding and Miller used examples from baseball, tennis, golf, and track and field to recount how companies such as Mizuno (Japanese) and adidas (European) gained significant market share in the American market.

The invasion of Japanese-made (Mizuno) baseball and softball mitts serves as an example of a company that significantly increased its share in the American market. In 1957, imports accounted for only 4.2% of the glove and mitt market. Within nine years foreign manufacturers had taken over, controlling up to 84% of the market. Adidas was another foreign company that led the way (before Nike existed) by outfitting and securing Olympic, college, and even high school-level athletes. "When Adidas became the official track and field outfitter of the 1968 Olympic Games, they banned other companies from the Olympic village" (p. 24). As a result, adidas became synonymous with track and field around the world.

Six strategies were utilized by American sporting goods manufacturers as a "means to regain market share from foreign competitors" (p. 24). Many American companies implemented the strategy of moving production offshore in order to take advantage of cheaper labor, more conducive tariffs, and to escape legal costs associated with liability suits in the US (Miller & Fielding, 1995). This strategy reflects much of what is commonly occurring in the American manufacturing market today. A key concept gleaned from this study: "Each element in the formula for success depends upon market analysis" (p. 27). With a growing reliance on sophisticated analytics, market analysis has grown to a new level of prominence, first forecast in this foundational piece.

Examining the importance of brand equity in professional sport (Vol. 8, No. 1, 1999), James M. Gladden and George R. Milne

Gladden and Milne expanded on our conceptual understanding of brand equity as they compared the importance of brand equity and winning in the realization of desired marketplace outcomes in professional sport. The study showed that both brand equity and winning significantly contributed to the attainment of merchandise sales, although the impact of each variable differed between Major League Baseball, the National Basketball Association, and the National Hockey League. The authors argued that while winning is vitally important in sport, short-term tactics do not guarantee long-term consistent revenue streams. Citing examples where a winning season did not translate to ticket sales and desirable marketplace outcomes, the authors suggested expanding the focus of strategic marketing to include efforts to increase brand awareness, brand associations, and brand loyalty. Several studies followed examining multiple aspects of brand building, with brand personality receiving the bulk of interest in current scholarly work. Within the industry, marketers have responded to these studies by working to maximize benefits accruing from a winning season, while simultaneously insulating the brand from potentially damaging associations.

Marketing implications of Title IX for collegiate athletic departments (Vol. 8, No. 3, 1999), Carol A. Barr, William A. Sutton, and Erin M. McDermott

This article guided us into the unique realm of U.S. collegiate sport. Barr, Sutton, and McDermott identified revenue potential and attendance as the top two factors influencing marketing allocations. They suggested that these factors have led to a self-fulfilling prophecy in that top revenue-producing sports receive the bulk of the funding and marketing expertise due to their attendance and revenue potential. These long-established male sports then thrive due to the substantial investment and, as a result, increase their revenue potential through improved attendance. The cycle continues with no clear end in sight. Yet, Barr et al. pointed to the federal law (Title IX) that holds university athletic personnel accountable for some degree of balance between male and female sports. They suggested that by not adding the personnel or resources necessary to market and promote women's sport, universities perpetuate the side of the cycle where women continue to receive an inequitable share of the resources. Ironically, the findings from this study would most likely hold true today, demonstrating the value of this foundational piece.

Good morning, Vietnam: An ethical analysis of Nike activities in Southeast Asia (Vol. 9, No. 1, 2000), Lynn R. Kahle, David M. Boush, and Mark Phelps

Kahle, Boush, and Phelps analyzed the environment in which Nike was working when it was embroiled in controversy and accused of unethical behavior. Noting the poor infrastructure in developing countries as one reason for low wages and suppressed productivity, the authors provided a broader view of the circumstances. In their analysis, they suggested that by investing in the work force, companies such as Nike improve the economy of the developing country. The authors found the greatest likelihood for stakeholder conflict arises when accepted principles and business practices in the US are not upheld in these other countries. In essence, Kahle et al. found no reason to believe Nike's actions were fundamentally worse or better than other shoe and apparel manufacturers'. Instead, they suggested Nike was targeted because of their market leader status rather than perceived extreme practices. Their ethical examination of the issue included Kant's categorical imperative from foundational philosophy. In this way, the authors provided one of the few articles directly focused on ethical principles needed in sport business practices. Public perception of the sport brand (Nike) and the resulting strategic response were analyzed to provide guidance to practitioners. As a reflection of Nike's challenges, a new era has emerged in which corporate social responsibility (CSR) has become a strategic initiative of nearly every large American company.

Using the Psychological Commitment to Team (PCT) Scale to segment sport consumers based on loyalty (Vol. 9, No. 1, 2000), Daniel F. Mahony, Robert Madrigal, and Dennis Howard

Mahony, Madrigal, and Howard focused on consumer loyalty as a key segmentation strategy. The authors established their scale as a valid and reliable tool for measuring attitudinal loyalty, or the strength of a fan's commitment to a particular team. By demonstrating how the "dispositional nature of attachment is crucial to establishing true loyalty" (p. 21), the authors were the first to provide a practical tool upon which teams can base market strategies most likely to successfully exploit and consequently build fan loyalty.

A comparative analysis of sponsorship objectives for U.S. women's sport and traditional sport sponsorship (Vol. 10, No. 4, 2001), Nancy L. Lough and Richard L. Irwin

The authors demonstrated once again the significant place women's sport held at the turn of the century. With noted increases in girls and women competing in sport and becoming spectators and fans, the question potential sponsors were facing was whether sponsorship of women's sport would meet marketing objectives. With prior studies establishing an array of known sponsorship objectives including increased exposure, recognition, product sales, and brand loyalty, Lough and Irwin set out to determine if these objectives were similar or different based on the gender designation of the sport product. Recognizing the 1984 Olympic Games as the catalyst for sponsorship as a sport marketing strategy, Lough and Irwin found the benchmark for women's sport sponsorship to be the 1996 Olympic Games in Atlanta. Evidence for this benchmark was provided by the increasing levels of prize money available for established women's sport properties, as well as the increasing number of sponsors reporting involvement with women's sport during and after the 1996 Olympic Games. New women's sport properties such as the WNBA evolved directly as a result of fan interest supported by the 1996 Olympic Games' television ratings. This particular study represents one of a very few that have focused specifically on a comparison of sponsored sport properties based on gender.

Characterizing consumer motivation as individual difference factors: Augmenting the Sport Interest Inventory (SII) to explain level of spectator support (Vol. 11, No. 1, 2002), Daniel C. Funk, Daniel F. Mahony, and Lynn Ridinger

With attention paid to the attendance at women's sporting events and media coverage increasing steadily, the authors posed several key questions: What motivates people to watch women's sports? Are these motivations the same as or different from the motivations for watching men's sports? Do these motivations differ among various types of spectators (e.g., men vs. women; old vs. young)? Will the interest in women's sports continue to grow?

The new millennium marked the first attempt to establish a professional women's soccer league, based largely on the success of the 1999 Women's World Cup held in the US. The Women's United Soccer Association (WUSA) served as the focal point for this study. Through evaluation of the Sport Interest Inventory within the distinct emerging segment of spectators of women's sports, this study made some important contributions. First, it expanded our understanding of sport spectator motivation beyond the traditional sport motives. Next, it provided a more complete scale for examining the motives of women's sport spectators. Finally, the authors provided suggestions for marketing unique or niche-based sport events, with particular attention paid to games of the WUSA. In essence, this groundbreaking piece provided a foundational framework for marketing women's sport.

Sport sponsorship in China: Transition and evolution (Vol. 11, No. 1, 2002), Lizhong Geng, Rick Burton, and Connie Blakemore

Geng, Burton, and Blakemore found it understandable that the sport-centered ideas practiced in China were unfamiliar to Western sport practitioners. Winning Olympic events, combined with serving China with glory, were the long-held values defining Chinese sport culture. As Western corporations initiated sponsorships with Chinese sports events and properties, their capitalistic attitudes (i.e., economic profit motives) were often in conflict with China's distinct socialism (i.e., social profit motives). This article provided us with a better understanding of how views on sponsorship may have cultural implications, which are particularly relevant with the ongoing globalization of the sport market.

Comparing sport consumer motivations across multiple sports (Vol. 13, No. 1, 2004), Jeffrey D. James and Stephen D. Ross

James and Ross extended our understanding of sport consumers by identifying motives that influence an individual's interest in nonrevenue collegiate sports. In particular, they examined whether similar motives influence consumption across distinctly different sports (i.e., baseball, softball, and wrestling). Motives related to the sport such as entertainment, skill, drama, and team effort were rated higher than the motives pertaining to self-definition (i.e., achievement, empathy, and team affiliation) and motives related to personal benefits (i.e., social interaction and family). The authors suggested that many sport consumers attend collegiate sporting events due to their enjoyment of watching participants give their best effort in a sport they enjoy playing. Even though this collegiate sport model is limited to the US, the motives identified maintain relevance to each sport studied, and as such provide guidance to niche sport marketers for specific marketing strategies.

Market analyses of race and sport consumption (Vol. 13, No. 1, 2004), Ketra L. Armstrong and Terese M. Peretto Stratta

Armstrong and Stratta were the first to demonstrate how race was a factor influencing consumption dynamics in professional women's sport. The authors analyzed the manner in which socio-cultural and environmental market factors influence sport consumption. With other socio-demographic and market characteristics being fairly equal (meaning more similar than dissimilar), the results of this study implied that differences in active and vicarious sport consumption may be based on both latent and manifest elements of race. Specifically, variables such as the racial classification of the individual consumer, the racial characteristics of the sport team (players and management) as the product to be consumed, and the racial demographics of the environment in which the sport consumption takes place influence consumers' behavior, and as such, specific marketing strategies are warranted that reflect such nuances. Armstrong and Stratta demonstrated a clear need to understand consumer attributes typically overlooked or neglected both in academic work and in the industry.

Sponsorship evaluation: Moving from theory to practice (Vol. 13, No. 1, 2004), David K. Stotlar

As a recognized expert on sport sponsorship, Stotlar critiqued one of the long-standing failures in sport marketing practice. He began by pointing out how many corporations fail to assess their sponsorship's effectiveness, and in particular overlook the fit with the broader marketing objectives, suggesting, "Perhaps the lack of assessment exists because the process for evaluation has not been solidified in theory or practice" (p. 63). Here, we see the gap exposed, where theory and practice have not met. In response, an evaluation model for sport sponsorship is presented and discussed. The intent of this work was to provide a comprehensive overview of how theory relates to and shapes current practice with regard to sponsorship evaluation. In his conclusion, Stotlar used the example of how sponsorship works to draw a parallel in scholarly work, suggesting that "theorists and practitioners form a symbiotic relationship where joint efforts are greater than the sum of the parts" (p. 63).

Athletes as product endorsers: The effect of gender and product relatedness (Vol. 13, No. 2, 2004), Thomas Boyd and Matthew D. Shank

Boyd and Shank were interested in the effect gender played among celebrity athlete endorsers. They examined the effects of consumer gender and the type of product advertised on consumer perceptions of endorser trustworthiness, expertise, and attractiveness. Their findings demonstrated that regardless of product type, subjects rate endorsers of the same gender as more trustworthy. Interestingly, women rated endorsers as more expert when a fit existed between the endorser and product (e.g., when the endorser uses the product in his/her sport). This study continues to guide practitioners in the realization that gender differences necessitate unique marketing strategies.

Marketing to lifestyles: Action sports and Generation Y (Vol. 13, No. 4, 2004), Gregg Bennett and Tony Lachowetz

Recognizing the difficulty in reaching and influencing the highly coveted youth market, the authors focused on action sport and the unique attributes of this consumer segment. Utilizing Hanan's (1980) definition of lifestyle marketing as "a strategy for seizing the concept of a market according to its most meaningful, recurrent patterns of attitudes and activities, and then tailoring products and their promotional strategies to fit these patterns" (pp. 2-3), the authors studied the fit between action sport sponsors and the lifestyle attributes of Generation Y. Their findings suggested that the incorporation of edginess, irreverence, and exhilaration of action sports was the perfect fit for the promotion of a non-sport product like Mountain Dew. The authors found "shared equities resonated powerfully with the teen male target, so by aligning with such edgy activities that teens enjoy or admire, Mountain Dew increased its brand affinity among a critical demographic" (p. 242). From the industry perspective, Mountain Dew benefited because their action sports association was not just about tapping into the sport consumers; it was also about becoming part of a culture that provides endless ways of communicating or reaching their target market. This study continues to demonstrate to corporations that lifestyle aspects such as music, fashion, and sport blend to offer a solution for reaching one of the more elusive market segments.

More than just a game? Corporate social responsibility and Super Bowl XL (Vol. 15, No. 4, 2006), Kathy Babiak and Richard Wolfe

Babiak and Wolfe provided one of the first articles centered on the influential theme of corporate social responsibility (CSR), suggesting organizations have responsibilities beyond profit maximization. One ethical challenge increasingly faced by companies is to accept their social role. Many leading US corporations have shifted from the traditional charity perspective to strategic CSR. As a result, cause-related marketing, in which companies/brands link the promotion of their product to a social cause and contribute a share of their revenue to the cause, has become increasingly more common. In sport, at a growing rate, mega-events are being designed to include CSR-related programs. These efforts may be motivated by altruistic values, to develop and to project a positive corporate image, or to alleviate negative perceptions held by consumers. Through their analysis of activities aligned with the Super Bowl, Babiak and Wolfe found that "doing the 'right thing,' in an environment where corporations are increasingly criticized for unethical activity, may ward off backlash and contribute to the NFL's reputation as an entity that cares, and thus may enhance its image" (p. 214). With ever-increasing media coverage and tenuous labor relations prevailing in sports today, the benefits of CSR remain as poignant as ever.

Motivational profiles of sport fans of different sports (Vol. 17, No. 1, 2008), Daniel L. Wann, Frederick G. Grieve, Ryan K. Zapalac, and Dale G. Pease

The authors investigated eight fan motives: escape, economic (i.e., gambling), eustress (i.e., positive arousal), self-esteem, group affiliation, entertainment, family, and aesthetics. Sport types were found to maintain a unique compilation of motives. For example, aesthetic motivation was found to be particularly prominent in individual sports. Team sports were higher in eustress, self-esteem, group affiliation, entertainment, and family. Nonaggressive sports and stylistic sports both had higher aesthetic motivation scores. Of all the motives examined, only escape was found not to differ in sport type comparisons. Sport marketers can benefit directly and immediately from the application of these findings. For example, marketing campaigns for alternative sport events, such as the X games, have exhibited aesthetic elements directly reflective of the individualized nature of creating new tricks or increasingly challenging stunts aligned with board sports. In contrast, family affiliation and team connection are most prominently incorporated into marketing communication aligned with major league teams like those representing the NFL and Major League Baseball.

The four domains of sports marketing: A conceptual framework (Vol. 17, No. 2, 2008), Sam Fullerton and G. Russell Merz

Fullerton and Merz acknowledged that as recently as 2008, "no consensus of the term 'sport marketing' had been attained" (p. 90). In this seminal work, they assessed published definitions provided by textbook authors such as Shank (2005), Pitts and Stotlar (1996), and Hardy, Mullin, and Sutton (2000) among others. They proceeded to incorporate the many facets of the multiple definitions into their conceptual framework built upon the dichotomy of "marketing through sport" and "marketing of sport." Through categorization of goods and services as sport or non-sport products, and by differentiating between traditional and sponsorship-based strategies, the authors created the following four distinct sport marketing domains: theme based, product based, alignment based, and sports based. The results of this contribution enable us to be well prepared to engage in the dialogue and debate of defining parameters for the field of sport marketing.

Measuring the motives of sport event attendance: Bridging the academic-practitioner divide to understanding behavior (Vol. 18, No. 3, 2009), Daniel C. Funk, Kevin Filo, Anthony A. Beaton, and Mark Pritchard

The authors found that "a critique of published research using existing motivation scales reveals most studies rarely report or explain game attendance behavior" (p. 127). In response, the authors presented a hybrid approach blending the demands of both academics and practitioners for theoretical and applied scales to investigate motives capable of explaining sport event attendance. This study may stand as one of the premier examples of "bridging the gap," given the authors' attention to the arguments on each side of the debate. Through examination of constructs from a number of scales, the authors identified five motivational themes used in previous empirical studies. From these themes a parsimonious set of motives was developed: Socialization, Performance, Excitement, Esteem, and Diversion. Presentation and validation of the resulting SPEED scale solidified this article as a significant and seminal piece, in addition to serving as an example that the gap between theoretically driven research and practice can be bridged, particularly since the SPEED scale is brief and easy for practitioners to regularly incorporate in consumer feedback studies.

Final Thoughts

In each of these studies, the potential benefit to the sport industry has been significant. The list of topics studied in this top 20 list is broad, yet several pervasive themes emerged including sponsorship, brand building, consumer behavior, market segmentation, fan identity, and business ethics.

As Pedersen and Pitts (2001) suggested, studying the research content of a discipline or field of study can "help to determine what is on the cutting edge, considered valuable, or esteemed by academics" (p. 8). In this compilation, we have reviewed what has been considered valuable or esteemed by sport marketing scholars and look to it now as both a reflection of the past and a path to our future.

A significant evolution has occurred in the field of sport marketing during the past 20 years, evidenced by the scholarly work published in SMQ. This list serves as an example of how many of the topics studied over two decades remain fertile areas for inquiry. In many of the articles, the authors initiated our understanding of a marketing strategy. More recent articles extended previous work and expanded our field of study, while simultaneously demonstrating the growing sophistication of both the sport marketing industry and sport marketing theory.

As we embarked on this journey to understand how SMQ has changed over the past 20 years, we also sought to determine how we can continue to evolve to best serve our readership and accurately reflect industry developments. Our intention was to draw attention to the quality of work in SMQ and spur dialogue regarding where we have been, and where we need to go. As business philosopher Jim Rohn said, "Whatever good things we build end up building us."

References

Armstrong, K. L., & Peretto Stratta, T. M. (2004). Market analyses of race and sport consumption. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 13, 7-16.

Babiak, K., & Wolfe, R. (2006). More than just a game? Corporate social responsibility and Super Bowl XL. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 15, 214-222.

Barr, C. A., Sutton, W. A., & McDermott, E. M. (1999). Marketing implications of Title IX for collegiate athletic departments. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 8, 9-20.

Bennett, G., & Lachowetz, T. (2004). Marketing to lifestyles: Action sports and Generation Y. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 13, 239-243.

Boyd, T., & Shank, M. D. (2004). Athletes as product endorsers: The effect of gender and product relatedness. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 13, 82-93.

Branch, D. D. (1995). Tapping new markets: Women as sport consumers. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 4, 9-12.

Fielding, L., & Miller, L. K. (1998).The foreign invasion of the American sporting goods market. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 7, 19-29.

Fullerton, S., & Merz, G. R. (2008). The four domains of sports marketing: A conceptual framework. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 17, 90-108.

Funk, D. C., Filo, K., Beaton, A. A., & Pritchard, M. (2009). Measuring the motives of sport event attendance: Bridging the academic-practitioner divide to understanding behavior. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 18, 126-138.

Funk, D. C., Mahony, D. F., & Ridinger, L. (2002). Characterizing consumer motivation as individual difference factors: Augmenting the Sport Interest Inventory (SII) to explain level of spectator support. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 11, 33-43.

Geng, L., Burton, R., & Blakemore, C. (2002). Sport sponsorship in China: Transition and evolution. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 11, 20-32.

Gladden, J. M., & Milne, G. R. (1999). Examining the importance of brand equity in professional sport. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 8, 21-29.

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Where we've been and where we're going. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 8, 9-14.

James, J. D., & Ross, S. D. (2004). Comparing sport consumer motivations across multiple sports. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 13, 17-25.

Kahle, L. R., Boush, D. M., & Phelps, M. (2000). Good morning, Vietnam: An ethical analysis of Nike activities in Southeast Asia. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 9, 43-52.

Lough, N. L., & Irwin, R. L. (2001). A comparative analysis of sponsorship objectives for U.S. women's sport and traditional sport sponsorship. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 10, 202-211.

Mahony, D. F., Madrigal, R., & Howard, D. (2000). Using the Psychological Commitment to Team (PCT) Scale to segment sport consumers based on loyalty. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 9, 15-25.

McDonald, M. A., & Milne, G. R. (1997). A conceptual framework for evaluating marketing relationships in professional sport franchises. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 6, 27-32.

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Pitts, B. (2002). Examining sport management scholarship: An historical review of the Sport Marketing Quarterly. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 11, 84-92.

Pitts, B., & Mahoney, D. (1997, May). Identification of resources used in the development of content in master's level sport management courses in American and Canadian programs. Paper presented at the annual conference of the North American Society for Sport Management, San Antonio, TX.

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Shank, M. (2005). Sports marketing: A strategic perspective. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.

Stotlar, D. K. (2004). Sponsorship evaluation: Moving from theory to practice. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 13, 61-64.

Sutton, W. A., McDonald, M. A., Milne, G. R., & Cimperman, J. (1997J. Creating and fostering fan identification in professional sports. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 6, 15-22.

Wann, D. L., Grieve, F. G., Zapalac, R. K., & Pease, D. G. (2008). Motivational profiles of sport fans of different sports. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 17, 6-19.

Nancy L. Lough is a professor in the Higher Education Leadership program in the College of Education at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas. Her research interests include marketing women's sport, corporate sponsorship, social marketing, and leadership in intercollegiate athletics.

Matthew L. Brann is acting director of the International Center for Performance Excellence and senior editor of Fitness Information Technology in the College of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences at West Virginia University.