The civic health generated by neighborhood associations in Seoul, Korea: A consideration of internal and external advocacy roles.

Kim, Jung Wook ; Jang, Hee Soun ; Dicke, Lisa A. 等

INTRODUCTION

A neighborhood association (NA) is a self-governing body established in a specific local area to deal with community issues and citizens' daily problems (King, 2004). NAs are important for promoting civic health, which refers to civic and community engagement to address common issues of community (Haddad, 2004). Civic health is enhanced when residents are involved in their NA and discuss mutual concerns and problems with their neighbors. Although NAs deal with mundane problems, such as parking issues, they also offer communication channels for residents by holding board meetings or community meetings, conducting community surveys or encouraging interactions through social media. NAs undertake important roles, including internal and external advocacy for residents by facilitating interaction and mediating between residents and local government. Citizens often have difficulty engaging with local government on their own. As an advocate, NAs can collate and magnify the collective voices of neighborhood residents on community issues and relay the messages to local governments. NAs have the potential to create frequent or more effective interactions with local governments through organized action. Thus, the advocacy roles played by NAs have the potential to enhance civic health. Internally, they can encourage citizens to interact and work together to solve common neighborhood problems. Externally, they can advocate on behalf of residents with local government officials.

Several studies have found that NAs provide services to their residents (McCabe, 2006; McCabe & Tao, 2006). A neighborhood watch group, for example, can help accomplish overall municipal security goals by serving as a supplement to governmental services (King, 2004). But, few studies exist about NAs that consider their advocacy roles or how they may be promoting civic health. This study discusses how governments are encouraging NAs to play advocacy roles and seeks to understand in what ways NAs are contributing to civic health at the local level. Specifically, this case study analyzes and discusses factors that affect the advocacy roles of NAs that work and operate in apartment complexes in Seoul, South Korea. In settings, such as Seoul, which are highly urbanized, residents face concerns from crowding, potential anomie and the need for supplemental services that extend beyond the capabilities of local government. Developing effective social capital that can be used for citizen advocacy and civic health has been on the forefront of local policy in Seoul with the idea that NAs may create beneficial tangible, as well as intangible social goods.

The City of Seoul has been interested in the creation of NAs to activate residents to work together to enhance engagement and quality of life. The associations are seen as a vehicle to help resolve social problems, such as neighborhood conflicts among residents, and to provide for adequate child and senior care. Rapid urbanization and the "nuclearization" of neighborhoods located in the Seoul metropolitan area represent challenges to the community that may be addressed through the creation of positive social capital. By establishing ordinances for community development and activation, the City of Seoul has sought to strengthen NAs in ways that will encourage residents' engagement. It is hoped that through these means, neighbors' conflicts will decrease, government responsiveness will increase, and community civic health will be enhanced.

A Neighborhood Association in Seoul is a governing body, which consists of people who typically own property in a specified area, in order to manage common areas and property, and provide an outlet for discussion and engagement of residents (both homeowners and renters). This research seeks to understand the factors that contribute to the abilities of NAs in Seoul to advocate for the needs and concerns of its residents. An advocacy role is important for the development of social capital and the civic health of area residents and their community, as a whole. Our research questions include: What factors create conditions for NAs to be representative of their members? Why are some NAs more active than others? To answer these questions, we analyze 2016 survey data, "Understanding the Roles of Neighborhood Associations in Urban Governance." The dependent variable is defined as the advocating roles internal to the NA, and as an external advocate or mediator with government. Independent variables examined include the number of households (community size), homeownership, NAs' board of directors or the perception of the executive directors with regard to the extent of residents' interaction within neighborhoods, the number of social groups in apartment complexes and the number of community facilities. One paradoxical finding is that as the number of social groups in each apartment complex increases, the advocacy role of NAs decreases.

URBAN PROBLEMS AND NEIGHBORHOOD GOVERNANCE

Governments face many challenges in responding to community problems and in reaching out to their citizens. Young (1989) argues that citizens' needs may remain unmet, because the bureaucratic waters of government organizations are too broad or deep for many citizens to navigate. Although governments try to respond to the needs of the majority, the needs of minority groups with special problems may be neglected. Nonprofit organizations, such as neighborhood-based organizations and voluntary organizations are mediating institutions that can be used to handle the niches between government, and citizens in their communities. For example, to overcome government failures some municipalities in the U.S., including the City of Los Angeles and the City of Portland have worked to establish mediating institutions, such as neighborhood councils and neighborhood associations (Bryer, 2009; City of Portland, 2016). These municipalities have encouraged collaboration among citizens and existing organizations, such as homeowners associations or NAs to enhance governmental responsiveness, encourage deliberation processes, and promote fairness in public services.

Neighborhood-based entities are viewed as important for helping to enhance civic health (7), which refers to connectedness with others, in addition to civic and community engagement with which to deal with common issues of community such as care, disasters and education (Haddad, 2004). Neighborhood entities can mediate between citizens and governments, and they can engage stakeholders, including residents and businesses by offering communication channels. These entities also communicate with local governments to discuss community issues and to voice the collective needs of their community to the government. Given the potential benefits for promoting civic health, NAs are an important polity in urban governance.

Homeowners associations in the US, neighborhood councils in Los Angeles, and neighborhood associations in Japan have responded to the needs of residents. The academic literature shows that neighborhood-based entities have been active in addressing neighborhood problems by providing transportation services, parks and recreation activities, and disaster responses (Bryer, 2009; McCabe & Tao, 2006; van Houwelingen, 2012). Neighborhood-based associations have also played critical roles in promoting community interactions and communication with governments (Bryer, 2009; McCabe, 2011; Pekkanen, 2009).

LEGAL CONTEXT OF NEIGHBORHOOD ASSOCIATIONS IN KOREA

To help build a more participatory democracy, South Korean President Roh Moo-hyun encouraged local self-governance through the passage of the Housing Act of 2003, which requires each apartment complex to organize an NA. (8) The provisions of this national legislation clarifies the scope of tasks and responsibilities of neighborhood associations in each apartment complex, and empowers the associations to deal with community issues (Eun, 2007). A primary focus of the Housing Act of 2003 was to empower civic-minded volunteer associations for Seoul's many apartment complexes. The associations are required to work with residents to address common concerns in areas, such as housing maintenance, as well as to help resolve conflicts in apartment complexes caused by social problems that have created concern for personal and familial security, in addition to community unrest in neighborhoods. Through amendments to the National Act in 2010, NAs are also expected to mitigate neighborhood conflicts arising from noise, suspicion, fear, fraud or cronyism.

In its initial consideration of the amendment of the Act in 2010, the Housing Act encouraged NAs to be citizen-driven entities that could build positive social capital through community gatherings and activities to improve community civic health. Based on the amendment, the City of Seoul has acted to insert a legal basis to promote community activities in apartment complexes through the Regulation for Collective Housing Management of Seoul (Korea Research Institute for Human Settlement, 2013). Associations are envisioned as units to bring people together, identify common concerns and provide for mutual respect and strengthen social values. The legal intent for the neighborhood association is the development of a local, social institution that can unite individuals, build tolerance for diversity opinions, and create a way for citizens to work together for the representation of local interests.

The Housing Act of 2003 was a relatively symbolic policy until the mayoral leadership of Park Won-Soon in Seoul in 2011. As a champion of civil society, Mayor Park served as a catalyst for advancing community building and generating new resources for these efforts through The Regulation for Collective Housing Management of Seoul. For example, the Regulation clarifies community gatherings and encourages engagement via several provisions that reflect tasks that NAs should support in their neighborhood. NAs are encouraged to create communication channels for citizens and government via a community manager system that was instituted in 2011. For instance, in some local governments as a sub municipality of the City of Seoul, the community managers visit NAs on a monthly basis to encourage residents to engage, listen to one another and address any common problems they or the NAs may have (Park, 2012), This is intended to reconcile local conflicts among neighbors and promote civic health in neighborhoods. The City of Seoul and its local governments provide consulting services through the community manager to support NAs, as well as help initiate community gatherings and leadership training courses, among the supports offered (Seongbuk, 2016).

Since 2011, the City of Seoul has emphasized civic engagement to help reduce collective inaction, and serve as a check on fraudulent activities occurring in the operation and management of NAs (City of Seoul, 2010). Using the legal mandates and administrative supports just mentioned, NAs in Seoul are now required to take proactive steps to contribute to abundant civic health at the neighborhood level.

The national law and local regulations and administrative supports include the following key provisions that apply to NAs and reflect governmental expectations:

* Each resident can easily contact their neighborhood association and work collectively to solve problems that arise in everyday life.

* Each neighborhood association is encouraged to facilitate communication channels between citizens and local government, and use a community manager system to discuss common issues and strengthen the association.

* Each neighborhood association must offer community gatherings and activities that promote civic health in their neighborhood.

* Each neighborhood association is entitled to administrative supports, including leadership training courses and consulting services to promote civic health in their neighborhood.

NEIGHBORHOOD ASSOCIATIONS AS ADVOCATES

NAs play an advocacy role for residents when they relay citizens' input on neighborhood issues to local government. This role is accomplished primarily through the arrangement of local meetings and public hearings. NAs can facilitate discussions and deliver citizens' opinions to governments to convey concerns and influence local decision making. The use of hearings and open forums in the U.S. is well established through law and custom. NAs located in New York, for example, regularly deliver collective concerns on local issues to government (Dilger, 1992). NAs in Portland, OR engage in budgeting processes, in order to reflect citizens' preferences on programs in the municipality (City of Portland, 2016). The City of Albuquerque also encourages NAs to participate in the decision making processes of the municipality via city ordinance (City of Albuquerque, 2016). In Las Vegas, NAs participate in local public hearings to deliver their associations' concerns on issues, such as the construction of common facilities, public safety and the aesthetic value of its NA community (McKenzie, 2005).

NAs, as an external advocate, connects residents with local government and helps establish them as an important stakeholder in decision making. Their function as a communication channel allows local governments to enhance the legitimacy of local government policy, as well as to capture citizens' concerns and interests on contemplated governmental policy (King, 2004). The functions of NAs help to link the ordinary resident to government by creating a means for access to the political processes.

NAs also have the potential to function as an internal advocate and bring residents together to discuss neighborhood issues, which builds social capital. Putnam (1993) defines social capital as a civic virtue and "a feature of social organizations such as networks, norms, and trust that facilitate coordination and cooperation for mutual benefit," (2). These social relationships create values, including reciprocal norms, trust and information sharing. Putnam emphasized that some types of social capital, namely, information sharing and reciprocal norms, were built through frequent interactions. People benefit when they share daily information with neighbors. An example is obtaining job information and recommendations through frequent interactions with one another (Putnam 2000). Furthermore, abundant and dense communications through frequent interactions can help people develop trust and understand common needs, resulting in neighbors who may cooperate more effectively. Shrestha (2013) also demonstrates that frequent interactions in community meetings promote collective action and civic health.

This research utilizes Putnam's view of social capital theory to consider whether the frequency of actions, social platforms, community size and homeownership affect the advocacy roles of NAs, which may contribute to the growth of social capital and result in enhanced civic health. Both external and internal advocacy roles are important contributions of NAs to civic health and the well-being of residents.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE ADVOCACY ROLES OF NEIGHBORHOOD ASSOCIATIONS IN SEOUL AND HYPOTHESES

Neighborhood Interaction

Neighborhood interaction refers to communication among residents, their engagement in social groups, and the availability and use of community facilities. For residents of a housing complex, the NA may facilitate interactions among residents through the encouragement of social group formations and the availability of rooms, resources and facilities for residents' use. As a subgroup of NAs, social groups are organized for leisure or spiritual activities, such as sports, senior citizen fellowship or hobby clubs. By engaging in social groups, residents pursue preferred activities and hobbies, which provide opportunities to bond and share their concerns with other neighbors.

A community facility refers to a space for social activities to take place, such as a community meeting hall, community festival grounds, sports field or a tennis court for activities. Residents who engage in social groups or use community facilities have opportunities to interact more frequently than would occur by chance. These conditions help foster internal social capital such as trust, and promote reciprocal norms (van Houwelingen, 2012). Dense communications through frequent interactions help people understand one another and promote collective action, because common stakes are exposed (Shrestha, 2013). As shared concerns are unearthed, messages can more effectively be delivered to the NA as a collective opinion. For instance, sports club members may identify defects in a tennis court and deliver the message to the NA, in order to receive the financial or personnel support necessary for remodeling or fixing the defect.

Residents who participate in social groups and utilize community facilities can also use the NA to pursue common needs, which government is not addressing effectively (if at all). As such, NAs can capture residents' collective concerns and in turn, contact local government to voice them to the local authorities. Based on this argument, our first hypothesis is that the frequency of residents' interactions in social groups and in community facilities will influence the advocacy roles of a neighborhood association:

[H.sub.1]: Neighborhood interaction is positively associated with the advocacy role of NAs.

Community Characteristics

Community characteristics refers to attributes that influence residents' activities in the community. In this research, the rate of homeownership and community size are included in capturing the character of community. Community character factors may explain neighborhood advocacy, because they influence the interactions and relationships among residents. For example, homeowners (as opposed to renters), have more property at stake in their neighborhood than tenants (Marschall, 2004). Thus, it follows that homeowners will have more frequent interactions with their neighborhood association than will tenants. Homeowners may also have broader networks among neighbors, due to the tendency for them to have a longer term of residence than tenants. Homeowners are more likely than renters to obtain information and resources through their networks, in order to solve common problems (Haurin, Dietz, & Weinberg, 2003).

Of the NAs of Seoul, homeowners are entitled to serve as board members for the NA, while tenants are not eligible to sit as board members (Seoul Development Institute, 2010). This disparity in governance authority also suggests that homeowners are more likely be involved in addressing neighborhood issues using the NA, than would tenants. Homeowners are also likely to have more frequent interactions with their NA to deal with property concerns and other neighborhood issues than tenants. Their financial investments in the residential property and roles on the NA boards, therefore, suggests that an NA will be encouraged to deliver residents' common needs to municipalities when there is a higher proportion of homeowners in residence. Based on this argument, the following hypothesis is proposed:

[H.sub.2]: Homeownership is positively associated with the advocacy role of NAs.

Community size has also been offered as an explanation for the development of social capital. People living in a community of small size are expected to have more salient collective interests and a sense of belonging, than will be found in a large community, due to the fact that small communities will consist of a more homogeneous population than those of a larger size (Graddy & Wang, 2009; Kelleher & Lowery, 2004). Residents who live in a small community also have more opportunity to interact and share common concerns with neighbors than those in larger communities (Ross & Levine, 2012). Because of the homogeneous nature of small communities, NAs are more likely to be able to easily understand their residents' common needs. People in smaller communities have more chances to meet and interact with their neighbors, which will encourage these residents' to share and identify common concerns, as well as encourage their NAs to voice their concerns to local governments. Our third research hypothesis is:

[H.sub.3]: Community size is negatively associated with the advocacy role of NAs.

RESEARCH DESIGN

Data Collection

To empirically test the factors affecting the advocacy role played by NAs, we conducted a face-to-face survey with the manager or the executive director of board members in NAs in Seoul. These participants were selected, because they represent the NA in an authoritative role, and are familiar with their neighborhood's affairs and their NA's tasks. Participants were identified using a listing of the NAs registered in the City of Seoul. The sample size for this research is 154 NAs in Seoul with a 69 percent survey response rate from those contacted for participation. (9) Data collection was conducted using a face-to-face interview protocol to increase response rates and to decrease non-response bias. This has been found to be a better method than using phone and online surveys (Babbie, 1992). The survey interviews were conducted from April 15, 2016 to May 9, 2016, through collaboration with Neo Data (10), a survey research firm located in Seoul that conducts national and regional surveys.

Methodology

Negative binominal regression and logistic regression are employed to estimate the impact of factors on the advocacy role of NAs in Seoul. Negative binominal regression is an alternative method for ordinary least squares and it deals with the counts variable, which has nonlinearity of dependent variables (Long, 1997; Rodriquez, n.d.). Negative binomial regression is employed for more dispersed counts variables. Because the internal advocacy of NAs is a count variable with over-dispersed values, negative binomial regression is used for the internal advocacy. Logistic regression is used for a dependent variable with a dummy variable (Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2010). Because the external advocacy of NAs is a dummy variable, logistic regression is employed for the external advocacy.

Measurements: Dependent Variables

The advocacy role played by NAs was measured at two levels: internal advocacy and external advocacy. The internal advocacy is operationalized by the sum of the number of opinions gathered through web pages, suggestion boxes and social media; the frequency of the surveys with residents; and whether the NA holds neighborhood meetings or not (yes=1, no=0). The second dimension is as an external advocate, which is operationalized as whether the association contacts government to discuss neighborhood issues (yes=1, no=0).

Measurements: Independent and Control Variables

Independent variables include a member of the board of director's or executive director's perception of residents' interaction within a neighborhood, in social groups and in community facilities. Community size and homeownership are used as community characteristics. Neighborhood interaction is operationalized into three dimensions: the extent of interaction within a neighborhood (board member's or director's perception), the number of social groups supported by the NA, and the number of community facilities managed by the association. The extent of residents' interaction within a neighborhood (based on a board member's or director's perception) was also used to measure interaction.

We created an index to measure the extent of residents' interaction within their neighborhood by using survey Q10, Q12 and Q13: (1) 'To what extent do you think that residents living in the apartment complex your association manages, engages in the social groups the association supports?'; (2) 'To what extent do you think that joining the social groups your association supports promotes solidarity (or reciprocity) among neighbors in your neighborhood?'; and (3) 'To what extent do you think that residents participating in the social groups your association supports, engages in your neighborhood issues or events such as participating in community meeting or community festival?'. The survey questions present a four-point scale for answers from a low 0 = to a very small extent, to a high 3 = to a very large extent. To make the index for residents' interaction within neighborhood, we calculated the sum of the answers on the three questions (Cronbach's alpha = .907), divided the summed score by 9, and multiplied the score by 10. Thus, the scope of index is from 0 to 10. Higher scores (close to 10) means that residents' have a greater level of active interaction within the neighborhood than those with lower scores.

The identification of the number of social groups, which are financially or administratively supported by the association or recognized as having NA administrative or financial support for social groups' activities in administrative or financial documents or the event calendar of the association, are answered through Q9-1 in the survey: 'Was the social group registered or recognized by your neighborhood association?' The survey question is provided with dummy variable: 1 = yes, 0 = no. The variable, the number of social groups, was summed from the number of social groups supported by the association. Community facilities was operationalized by the number of facilities identified using answers to Question 6 of the survey: 'Does your apartment complex have any of the following facilities, table court, table tennis court, daycare room for elderly, gym, multi-purpose room, etc., available for residents?, and, How many?' The respondents answered this question with zero or positive numeric values. The number of community facilities was calculated as the sum of the total number of the facilities.

To measure community size, this research used Q3 on the survey, the number of households registered in your association. (11) In addition, homeownership is used as one of the independent variables of community characteristics. Homeownership was measured by Q4 on the survey: 'What is the approximate percentage of homeowners from total number of households in your apartment?' The respondents answered with a numeric value on two variables, community size and homeownership. Table 2 shows the operationalization of the independent variables including the six control variables.

Control Variables

The research model proposes six control variables that may affect the roles of NAs' advocate role. Housing price is considered, because the residents who live in expensive apartments may care more about zoning policies or new construction to secure their property values (McKenzie, 2005). Gender was added, since it is expected that females are more heavily engaged in caring for children and seniors, than males (Beebeejaun & Grimshaw, 2011). Thus, females may seek to have their NA express their interests in caregiving policies on their behalf.

The size of membership dues is also considered in an NA's role in representing its neighborhood's interest (McCabe, 2005). Those residents who pay higher rates of membership dues are more likely to be concerned about their NA's responsive action to their interests. The number of household members is also a factor to be considered for resident engagement. People who are in single households, for example, may not participate in their neighborhood association as much as those with a larger family present. In Yoon's study (2002), single people spent most of their time working, while households with children or seniors were more likely to be engaged in neighborhood activities, such as daycare services or after school programs (Graddy & Wang, 2009; Marschall, 2004; Rankin & Quane, 2000). The number of children and seniors in the neighborhood was added as a control variable that may explain resident engagement and the advocate role of an NA. Lastly, whether tenants are allowed to become board members is also an important factor explaining the advocate roles of an NA. This is because exclusion of tenants from governance may cause tenant-residents' to be less engaged in neighborhood issues, due to a real or perceived lack of influence on the board or the distribution of NA resources (Seoul Development Institute, 2010).

FINDINGS

Negative binominal regression is used, because the dependent variable for the internal advocate role of NA is a count value with many zeros. Goodness of fit test for the regression confirms that the data for this research is appropriate for the negative binominal regression (less than at .001). Hypotheses are proposed to examine the impact of neighborhood interaction, homeownership and community size on the advocate role of NAs. The results of the negative binominal regression are presented in Table 3. Interaction within a neighborhood and community facility are factors that are positively associated with the internal advocate role played by NAs. Residents' interactions in their neighborhood can contribute to the promotion of civic health by encouraging people to participate in discussions of community issues with their association. These results support our hypotheses.

Contrary to our expectations, we found that an increase in the number of social groups is negatively associated with the internal advocacy activities of NAs, although the result is not significant. For the variables for community characteristics, homeownership is positively associated with the internal advocate role of NAs. This evidence supports Hypothesis 2. Homeownership is therefore a determinant in developing civic health in a neighborhood. Our findings show that community size is not a factor that promotes civic health in a neighborhood--size is not significantly associated with an internal advocate role.

For the external advocate role played by NAs, this research employs a logistic regression analysis, because a variable for the role is a dummy variable. Goodness of fit test for the logistic regression model shows that logistic regression analysis is proper for the data this research uses. (14) Table 4 reports that a neighborhood with more interactions within the neighborhood, more community facilities, and with more females is more likely to encourage NAs to play an external advocate role for their residents by contacting local government. Hypothesis 1 is confirmed through the variables interaction within neighborhood and community facilities. The social capital created by residents' neighborhood interactions facilitates NAs to enhance civic health by getting them involved in discussions with local governments on the residents' behalf. The data do not provide evidence supporting homeownership and community size in predicting an external advocate role by NAs. The results also show an unexpected finding that social groups have a negative impact on the external advocate role played by NAs, although the association is not significant.

DISCUSSION / CONCLUSION

This study has investigated the relationship between factors of neighborhood interaction and community characteristics, in addition to the advocate roles of neighborhood associations. The survey questions used were drawn from assumptions of social capital theory and government failure theory. Our findings show that NAs' internal advocate role is increased when a community creates opportunities for the development of social capital within their neighborhoods, and has the facilities in place to support interactions. Residents' social capital is increased as these avenues bring people together. That is, residents' interaction with their neighbors in their community and in using common facilities promotes connectedness and engagement in the neighborhood. Our results also show that connectedness and interaction promotes the level of residents' engagement by delivering their opinions on issues to NAs, and in encourages NAs to be involved in local government.

A surprising finding is that the presence of social groups is negatively associated with an NA's internal advocate role. We do not have data to explain why this is the case, but propose that it may be that social groups are replacing the roles of NAs by carrying out internal advocacy among themselves or externally with local government. Arguments from government failure theory suggest that social organizations may play a mediating role between people and government, when government is thought to be too large or complex to navigate (Young, 1989). We expected that NAs would carry out needed mediating through the creation of social capital in a neighborhood, but the data shows social groups may have captured the role of "mediating mechanism" even though the results are not significant.

Homeownership is identified as a factor that has a positive effect on the internal advocate role of NAs. Because homeowners have a tendency to live longer in a neighborhood, have more at financial stake in their neighborhood, and may be more connected with their neighbors, they are more engaged in their associations than tenants. The legal restrictions that prevent tenants from engaging in board governance likely discourages them from becoming as involved in their NAs, than are homeowners. We expected to find that homeownership and community size would compel NAs in their external advocate roles, but these findings did not materialize. It is possible that internal advocacy is enough to satisfy the common interests of larger complexes or that homeowners are likewise satisfied internally, but we do not have data to identify the content of residents' concerns or the responsiveness of any particular NA to issues raised. Additional research is needed to determine the substance of the issues that are brought forward to NAs.

Our results also show that females are more likely to participate in the promotion of civic health by encouraging NAs to carry out external advocacy activities. Females may be more likely to do so because they spend more time at home, and they are usually the primary support system for dependent children and seniors. The need for convenient neighborhood daycare services may also explain this finding, which is consistent with other research (see Beebeejaun & Grimshaw, 2011).

Our findings contribute to our understanding of NAs as mediating structures in the dense, metropolitan area of Seoul, Korea, and as facilitators of civic health in neighborhoods. Governments in Seoul, as in other large cities, face problems in connecting with citizens and citizens have likewise struggled to voice their concerns. South Korea has a history that has not always encouraged democratic participation, but recent legislation, regulation and administrative supports show that this may be changing. Governmental efforts to work with NAs to deal with social problems, neighborhood conflicts and to oust corruption from apartment complexes demonstrates that supports can help residents' with platforms for engagement. The problems that precipitated governmental action in Seoul may also have motivated residents to find better ways to deal with escalating problems in their concentrated living environments. NAs are not perfect mediators, but they are citizen-driven entities that can serve to improve the lives of residents. Citizen voice can be amplified through the NA's creation of common facilities and spaces that result in more frequent interactions among residents. These investments in the development of social capital can enrich civic health. The NAs' roles in advocacy are encouraging for those seeking to build a more robust foundation for a participatory urban governance.

We recognize that our study has limitations. The one-time data gathered from face-to-face interview surveys with officials in NAs in Seoul raises questions about the validity and causality of the findings shown using the regression analyses. Multi-time series data may not demonstrate the same results as is shown in our single point in time study. Likewise, other stakeholder groups may have different points of views about participation, and the usefulness of the interactions discussed. The survey indicators used to capture the advocate roles of NAs are another potential limitation of this study. The number of opinions delivered to NAs (to measure the internal advocate role of NAs), and whether NAs contact government to discuss neighborhood issues (used to measure the external advocate role played by NAs) is not demonstrated through reliable documentation. The study also uses perceptions as a proxy to measure the advocate roles of NAs, but these perceptions might not be completely valid or capture the comprehensive quality of the advocate roles that might be carried out by NAs.

Although this research has limitations, which may also reflect some cultural or geographical biases, the findings do have important implications for local governments, and board and staff members of NAs. There is no doubt that NAs have the potential to promote civic health in a local area by carrying out advocate roles for residents both internally and externally. Thus, local governments should examine their policies to determine how NAs may be strengthened, and how they may build meaningful relationships with them. This local action will require political will and the resources necessary for them to reach out to NAs, as well as offer administrative supports that may be necessary to help NAs get residents more engaged. NAs should review their policies on governance, and create rules and bylaws that result in more inclusive and representative structures. At present, NA boards in Seoul allow homeowners as members, but all residents regardless of property ownership have a stake in the quality of life in their neighborhood. NAs must work to ensure that all residents are able to be active and more fully engaged. This is also recommended, because the social problems and neighborhood conflicts that may exist are not likely to be solved or ameliorated when participation is stymied.

The implications of our study for cities and countries seeking to develop social capital is suggestive--civic health can be enhanced through government policies. Creating structures or supporting existing social structures, such as NAs can help break down barriers in self-governing in a community. NAs are not government organizations, but the legal and institutional supports offered by governments can be used to encourage them to become more accountable, open and activated to ensure opportunities for positive civic engagement. On a global scale, using government support to create a flourishing civil society may be considered unconventional thinking, but our research shows that in a non-western country that has typically used a top-down approach to governance, the encouragement of civic health is underway.

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JUNG WOOK KIM HEE SOUN JANG LISA A. DICKE

University of North Texas

(7) The National Conference of Citizenship (2009) created an index to measure the extent of civic health by using the degree of volunteering, charitable giving, social networks with social organizations, voting behavior, and confidence in public institutions.

(8) According to the judgement by the Supreme Court of South Korea, NAs in South Korea have been identified as an unincorporated organization (the Supreme Court of South Korea, 2015).

(9) 150 NAs are sampled using a stratified sampling strategy based on community size among the population of 2276 registered NAs in Seoul. The original sample size was 150 NAs, and a second and third group of samples (150 NAs respectively) were created to replace subjects in the original sample group when survey participation was declined by those in the first sample. Second and third group samples were created to mirror those NAs with the same or similar community size as the potential participants in the first sample grouping. Investigators contacted 224 NAs, and 154 NA representatives accepted the investigators' requests and answered survey questions.

(10) The address of Neo Data is 3th floor, 70 Morning Palm Building, 2 Samildaero, Junggu, Seoul, South Korea.

(11) The authors reviewed the website on the collective housing operated by the City of Seoul to ensure the community size (http://openapt.seoul.go.kr/apt/mvn/mvnUsr.do). If the information on community size between the answer on survey and government website is different, this research follows the answer on the survey.

(12) The primary source for housing prices is from the websites of the Korea Appraisal Board (KAB), which is a public corporation supported by government for investigation, research, and management with regard to real estate and housing (http://www.kab.co.kr). To supplement information provided by the KAB, this research uses the information from the website on the actual transaction cost for real estate provided by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, and Transport (MOLIT) of South Korea. MOLIT is one of the cabinet departments responsible for systemically developing land, infrastructure, and transportation in the executive branch of the central government of South Korea (http://rt.molit.go.kr).

For public housing, housing price (monthly rent) is calculated by using the real estate calculator from monthly rent to chonsei (or rental housing) which refers to a rent system in South Korea. Through the system, people rent housing (for two years in general). This is derived from the website of Real Estate 114 (http://www.r114.com), which is one of the representative websites dealing with real estate issues and information.

(13) The City of Seoul encourages NAs to report an NA s financial information to the government. The City of Seoul uploads the information to the website (http://openapt.seoul.go.kr/) for citizens (or residents) to access to NA's information. For the NA, which does not report their financial information to the City of Seoul, the dues are calculated by using the average dues of NAs located in same dong (a basic administrative unit of local government).

(14) The value of Hosmer-Lemeshow chi-square (6.92 with p-value of .5449) is not statistically significant. This evidence explains that the data fits well with the logistic regression analysis (Rodriguez, n.d.) Table 1 Measurement of Dependent Variables Dependent Source/ Variables Measurement Scale Internal The sum of opinions delivered to NA in Survey/ Advocate Q17-1, Q18-1, Q19-1, the frequency of Numeric surveys by the association in Q20-1, and whether the association holds neighborhood meetings in Q22 of the Survey * In the last 12 months, how many opinions or suggestion items for improvement did your association receive from residents per month? * In the last 12 months, how often did your association conduct a survey? * In the last 12 months, did your association have neighborhood meetings? (1= yes, 0 = no) External Contact or Not in Q23 of the Survey Survey/ Advocate * In the last 12 months, did your association Dummy contact local government officials to address your neighborhood issues (1= yes, 0 = No) Table 2 Measurement of Independent Variables and Control Variables Independent Variables Neighborhood Interaction Interaction within Neighborhood Social Group Community Facilities Community Community Characteristics Size (Logged) Homeownership Control Variables Housing Price (Logged) (12) Gender Small Household Children and Senior Tenants on Board Dues (Logged) (13) Independent Variables Measurement Neighborhood Interaction The index on executive director's or board member's perception regarding residents' interactions within the apartment complex with Q10, Q12, and Q13 of the Survey * To what extent do you think that residents living in your NA engage in the social groups? * To what extent do you think that joining the social groups within your NA promotes solidarity among neighbors? * To what extent do you think that residents participating in the social groups of your NA engage in your neighborhood issues or events? (3 = to a very large extent, 0 = to a very small extent) The sum of the number of social groups NA supports through Q9-1 of the Survey * Was the social group registered or recognized by your NA? (1 = yes, 0 = no) The sum of the total number of community facilities in the apartment complex with Q6 of the Survey How many of your apartment complexes have a table court, table tennis court, daycare room for elderly, gym, multi-purpose room, etc., available for residents? Community Characteristics The number of households registered in your NA in Q3 of the Survey * How many households reside in your apartment complex? Percentage of homeowners in Q4 of the Survey * What is the approximate percentage of homeowners from the total number of households in your apartment complex? Measurement Housing price (ten thousand won) per square meter * This value is calculated by housing price divided by floor area of house, and then is logged. KAB and MOLIT release housing price (http://www.kab.co.kr; http://rt.molit.go.kr). Percentage of female residents in the Dong (a basic administrative unit) in which the apartment complex is located. (http://kosis.kr) Percentage of one-person or two-persons household in the Dong (a basic administrative unit) in which the apartment complex is located. (http://kosis.kr) Percentage of under 19 or over 65 years old residents in the Dong (a basic administrative unit) in which the apartment complex is located. (http://kosis.kr) Tenants are allowed to become board members from Q29 of the Survey * In 2015, did your NA allow tenants to run for board members of your association? (1 = yes, 0 = no) Membership dues (won) (Korean currency) * This value is calculated by total amount of dues (Feb. 2016) divided by the number of households, and then is logged. (http://openapt.seoul.go.kr/) Independent Variables Source/ Scale Neighborhood Interaction Survey/ Numeric Survey/ Numeric Survey/ Numeric Community Characteristics Survey/ Numeric Survey/ Numeric Source/Scale KAB & MOLIT /Numeric Korea Census/ Numeric Korea Census/ Numeric Korea Census/ Numeric Survey/ Dummy The City of Seoul/Numeric Table 3 Negative Binominal Regression Estimating for the Role as an Internal Advocate Internal Advocate IRR Beta (s.e.) Z Interaction within 1.258 (**) .223 (**) (.11) 2.01 Neighborhood Social Group .712 -.458 (.35) -0.98 Community Facility .334 (***) 1.367 (***) (.10) 2.98 Homeownership 1.024 (*) .025 (*) (.01) 1.67 Community Size .867 -.027 (.45) -.32 (logged) Housing Price (logged) 1.669 .457 (.58) .88 Gender (Female) .660 -.280 (.15) -2.72 Small Household 1.000 -.035 (.03) -.03 Children and Seniors 1.139 .035 (.10) 1.24 Tenant for Board 2.042 .245 (.54) 1.32 Dues (logged) 1.258 -.018 (.61) .38 _cons 4845.235 8.479 (11.51) .73 N 154 LR Chi2 41.24 (***) Pseudo R2 .1055 (*) p < .1, (**) p < .05, (***) p < .01 Table 4 Logistic Regression Estimating for the Role as an External Advocate External Advocate Odds Beta (s.e.) Z Interaction within 1.310 (**) .270 (**) (.13) 2.040 Neighborhood Social Group .509 -.675 (.42) -1.620 Community Facility 1.431 (***) .359 (***) (.13) 2.770 Homeownership 1.006 .006 (.01) .400 Community Size .495 -.703 (.47) -1.500 (logged) Housing Price 2.052 .719 (.76) .950 (logged) Gender (Female) 1.861 (**) .621 (**) (.26) 2.430 Small Household .964 -.037 (.03) -1.040 Children and Senior .931 -.071 (.12) -.580 Tenant for Board 1.175 .162 (.61) .260 Dues (logged) 1.731 .549 (.69) .790 _cons .000 (***) -38.207 (***) (12.67) -3.010 N 154 LR [Chi.sup.2] 44.01 (***) Pseudo [R.sup.2] .2466