Culture and Hofstede (1980) in international business studies: a bibliometric study in top management journals/Cultura e hofstede (1980) na investigacao em negocios internacionais: um estudo bibliometrico em periodicos internacionais de administracao /Cultura y hofstede (1980) en la investigacion de ...

Ferreira, Manuel Portugal ; Serra, Fernando Antonio Ribeiro ; Pinto, Claudia Sofia Frias 等

1. INTRODUCTION

Competition and firms' operations are increasingly international in nature, and, being aware of the opportunities and threats emerging in foreign countries, managers can hardly fail. Indeed, many executives monitor what their foreign competitors are doing, how the industry is evolving and how the economy in foreign countries is progressing as they do in their own country. Therefore, be it launching a new product, setting a new subsidiary, engaging in an additional cross-border acquisition or broadening their business network taking one more partner, executives are required to understand the challenges of operating in foreign locations. We often refer to this growing interdependence as globalization, but despite the terminology used, these changes have also spurred International Business (IB) research to delve into new domains, or simply dig deeper into reasonably known phenomena. National culture and how countries differ in their cultural traits, norms, values, beliefs, behaviors and ways of doing things (KOGUT; SINGH, 1988; MOROSINI; SHANE; SINGH, 1998; BROUTHERS, K.; BROUTHERS, L., 2001; SHENKAR, 2001), has thus captured substantial research attention.

The influence of culture in international business (IB) studies is well established. Culture and cultural differences seem to permeate a wide array of IB decisions. Over the past three decades, culture has been an important facet when researching such IB decisions as the selection of entry modes (KOGUT; SINGH, 1988; BARKEMA; VERMEULEN, 1997, 1998; MOROSINI et al., 1998) and location (ERRAMILLI; AGARWAL; KIM, 1997). However, its influence also extends to research on such phenomena as expatriation and human resource management (AYCAN et al., 2000), management and performance of multinationals (GOMEZ-MEJIA; PALICH, 1997), to point only a few.

Perhaps the most notable contribution to the current state of development of our understanding on how much does culture actually matter was that of the Dutch scholar Geert Hofstede's work and more notably his 1980 book on Culture's consequences. In several of his following publications, Hofstede refined and extended his original contribution. Hofstede (1980) created a cultural taxonomy for the study of how cultures differ. Specifically, he advanced four cultural dimensions of national culture (albeit later expanded to five and updated). Arguably, one of the hallmarks of Hofstede's work was to make quantifiable cultural attributes that were previously taken as an undefined broad understanding of how people in different countries behaved, their attitudes and cultural traits. Ferreira and colleagues (2009) noted that a majority of the extant IB research had included cultural dimensions or considerations either as the dependent variable, the independent or as a controlling one.

Our primary purpose in this paper is not to fully review Hofstede's cultural dimensions, as such reviews may be found in other papers (EARLEY; GIBSON, 2002; TARAS; KIRKMAN; STEEL, 2010). For instance, Hofstede (2001) himself examined how has culture been included in empirical studies and Boyacigiller and Adler (1991) claimed the need to overcome the parochialism in IB research concerning how we deal and treat culture. We specifically aim at understanding what has truly been the impact of Hofstede's work (which we use as a proxy for culture) and what can we learn from it. Methodologically we conduct a bibliometric study of the articles quoting Hofstede's (1980) work that were published in eight top ranked business/management journals that are either IB specific or that are known for publishing IB research: Academy of Management Journal, Academy of Management Review, Administrative Science Quarterly, International Business Review, Journal of International Business Studies, Organization Science, Strategic Management Journal and Journal of World Business. We identified 665 articles quoting Hofstede (1980) over the thirty-one years from 1980 to 2010, published in these journals that comprise our sample. This selection allows us to identify IB specific articles but also international strategy and international management.

This study has thus the value of contributing to our understanding of how has culture been included on IB research over the past three decades, and contributes beyond existing literature reviews (LEUNG et al., 2005; KIRKMAN; LOWE; GIBSON, 2006; MINKOV; HOFSTEDE, 2011) by not only the methodology employed but also as it provides an overall perspective on the field. This perspective is captured by not restricting the analysis to a single journal, using a large dataset, and three procedures of analysis. The co-citation analyses permitted a better understanding of the intellectual ties among scholars. The longitudinal analysis of how the research themes in the articles published evolved using Hofstede further allowed to detect research shifts.

This paper is organized as follows. Firstly, we very briefly review Hofstede's contribution and more broadly how culture matters in a variety of organizational contexts in international business studies. Secondly, we describe the method employed and the samples. The results, in the third section, are followed by a broad discussion, pointing out limitations and avenues for future inquiry.

2. CULTURE AND HOFSTEDE

The influence of Hofstede's work on culture and how it is being compared across countries is recognized beyond the academy. A ranking of the Wall Street Journal, published in May 2008, on the most influential business thinkers, identified Hofstede as the sixteenth most influential scholar, following others such as Hamel, Thomas Friedman, Kotler, Mintzberg, Michael Porter, and ahead of many well reputed scholars, including Clayton Christensen, Jack Welch and Tom Peters. Moreover, citation analyses on the top business/management journals showed that Hofstede's work, especially his 1980 book Culture consequences: International differences in work related values, is among the most cited by scholars.

Traditionally, prior to Hofstede's work, research on cross-cultural issues, but also research on other IB-related subjects, tended to treat culture both as a single variable and as something that was out there, highly complex, multidimensional, largely unquantifiable and that had a somewhat unmeasurable impact on an array of decisions and practices. Put differently, culture was an omnipresent black box that often "explained" why some otherwise unaccounted differences would exist between two countries, their people and firms.

Hofstede's work came to advance research in several ways. It showed that culture could be quantified and actually compared across nations. It showed that researchers could fragment culture into smaller, perhaps more manageable and identifiable pieces. For this purpose, he advanced four cultural dimensions. This disaggregation is important as it allows a better comprehension of the specific cultural traits that may influence a given phenomenon or action. In addition, it contributed substantially to other theoretical advancements that followed. For instance, both Schwartz's (1994) work on values, and project GLOBE's (HOUSE et al., 2004) cultural attributes and measurements have benefitted from Hofstede's work.

Hofstede's studies on culture sought to identify and characterize individual traits that were used as national profiles of a society, to better understand how societies differ. In fact, Hofstede (1991:21) conceptualized culture as "the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one group from another" and much of the research has then emphasized these groups as national identities. Described briefly, Hofstede's dimensions were: power distance (related to the social inequality and how people deal with authority being unequally distributed), individualism-collectivism (and the prevalence of the individual and the group as guiding individuals ' behaviors), masculinity-femininity (and the drive towards achievement versus the concern with others) and uncertainty avoidance (pertaining to how individuals in different countries deal with uncertainty). In later works, Hofstede and Bond (1988) added a fifth dimension--confucian dynamism (also termed as long term orientation)--, and in the 2010 edition of the book Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind, a sixth dimension--indulgence vs. self-restraint.

3. METHOD

In this article, we conducted a set of bibliometric analyses based on citation and cocitation data, extending to the examination of the more prolific authors and institutions and the research themes delved into that have used Hofstede's 1980 work on culture's consequences. It is worth noting, however, that albeit we use Hofstede's (1980) as a key marker--his contribution is arguably disputed--we aim at the broader understanding of how culture truly matters on IB research.

3.1. Bibliometric study

In this paper we conducted a bibliometric analysis of the articles published in eight top journals for IB research that cited Hofstede's (1980) work on culture. Bibliometric studies are not novel in business/management research as scholars occasionally have the need to systematize existing knowledge by reviewing the state of the art of the extant research. Therefore, bibliometric studies are conducted to observe trends (WHITE; MCCAIN, 1998), themes examined (SCHILDT; ZAHRA; SILLANPAA, 2006; FURRER; THOMAS; GOUSSEV SKAIA, 2008), GOUSSEUSKAIA publication record of the scholars in a certain field (CORNELIUS; LANDSTRON; PERSSON, 2006), or the impact of a single scholar (FERREIRA, 2011), the research record of authors and institutions (SHANE, 1997), which articles are most cited (RATNATUNGA; ROMANO, 1997), and the intellectual structure of discipline (RAMOS-RODRIGUEZ; RUIZNAVARRO, 2004).

Bibliometric studies rely on the examination of data collected from a variety of documental sources. More often they rely on articles published in refereed journals, since these works have already been validated by the usual doubleblind reviewing process by peers, but they may resort to other sources such as books, monographs, reports, theses and dissertations, working papers, and so forth. In this paper, we use only the articles published in top management/business journals.

3.2. Procedures of analysis

This study involved three core procedures: examining citations, co-citations and identifying the research themes. Citation analysis consists of examining the frequency with which a certain paper has been used, or cited, by others. Scholars cite other works when writing their own papers for a variety of reasons. In some instances, to build upon an argument; in other cases, to establish a gap, set opposing rationales, or simply to criticize. Regardless of the motivation, citing others is a crucial element in any research. White and McCain (1998) noted that a work that is more cited has a larger impact in the discipline and that by examining citations over time we capture trends in the contribution of a specific work, author or theory.

The second procedure consisted on building co-citations networks. Co-citations analyses are based on identifying and observing how pairs of articles are cited together in the extant research. The co-citation analysis allow us identify ties among articles and is based on the assumption that a pair of articles jointly cited has some proximity (WHITE; GRIFFITH, 1981). Ramos-Rodriguez and Ruiz-Navarro (2004) use cocitation data to infer the intellectual structure in the domain of strategic management. Papers that are more often co-cited are those more relevant in a given matter (RAMOS-RODRIGUEZ; RUIZ-NAVARRO, 2004).

The third procedure entailed identifying and classifying the themes of the articles citing Hofstede (1980). To identify what the papers are about would ideally entail an extensive content analysis of each article. Given our sample of 655 articles that endeavor was neither feasible nor the analysis would return substantial meaning, beyond a mere casuistic description. An alternative is to capture the research theme of each article based on the author-supplied keywords and then develop a procedure to examine them empirically. Using the author-supplied keywords to infer the themes of the articles is reasonable since the authors chose keywords that better reflect the actual content of their manuscripts both for indexing purposes but also to potential readers.

The procedure used for identifying the theme followed Furrer, Thomas and Goussevskaia (2008). In essence, using ISI Web of Knowledge and the software Bibexcel, we were able to draw all the author-supplied keywords of the articles in the sample. Then, two coders independently examined all the keywords and classified each into one of the 23 major themes previously defined (see Appendix), based on Furrer et al. (2008) and adapted to reflect IB research and culture. Any inconsistencies were resolved among the coders and with the main researcher. The 655 articles comprised a total of 1,167 keywords but it is worth noting that the database does not contain the author-supplied keywords of articles published from 1980 to 1990, for that reason we cannot include this period in the analyses. Despite the obvious drawbacks vis-a-vis an in-depth content analysis, we are confident that this procedure yields a reasonable proxy for the content of each paper.

3.3. Data and sample

The data collection procedure evolved in several steps. First, we searched the entire track record of ISI web of knowledge to identify the citations to the works of Hofstede (Table 1). The search for all articles citing Hofstede in the entire database of ISI identified Hofstede's (1980) work with the greatest number of citations: 7,997. Thus, we selected this work as the core of our analysis in the following sections. It is worth noting that the two most cited works were books rather than journal articles.

Then, to build our sample, we searched ISI web of knowledge, delimiting the search using four criteria: first, we searched only in journals of management, economics and business, and second, to delimited the search to the period from 1980 to 2010. We further considered only "articles " and "reviews " thus leaving out editorial notes, book reviews and other materials. Using these procedures we identified 6,592 articles citing Hofstede (1980). Fourth, we selected only the journals in table 2. These are top management/business journals that have been classified among the top ranked for publishing IB-related research (see Harzing's journal quality list--available at www.harzing.com/jql.htm). The final sample comprises 655 works for additional analyses.

Albeit all journals published IB and culture-related research, it is not surprising that articles citing Hofstede's (1980) work were more prevalent in specialized IB-related journals: Journal of International Business Studies (16%) and International Business Review (20.1%). However, we also identified a substantial number of articles published in other journals quoting Hofstede, which denotes that IB studies are relevant in these journals, and that cultural issues are a research concern beyond the immediate IB domain and find applications in other management disciplines from marketing to strategy, human resources, and so forth.

4. RESULTS

4.1. The impact of Hofstede (1980): citation frequency

The number of articles citing Hofstede's (1980) work has steadily increased over the past thirty years (1980 to 2010) (Figure 1). In the decade 1980-1990, 43 articles cited Hofstede, from 1991 to 2000, 221 articles cited Hofstede, and in the third decade, 2001 to 2010, the number of articles citing Hofstede jumped to 391. This longitudinal analysis allows us to assess Hofstede's (1980) impact on the scientific community over time, and its remarkable increase. It is also prima facie evidence that culture, and national culture or cultural differences between countries specifically, has been gaining researchers ' interest.

[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]

The articles are increasingly published in co-authorship (Figure 1). Examining the articles that cited Hofstede (1980) we assessed authoring patterns. Perhaps the increasing difficulties of academic publishing, with stricter norms and reviewing requests, has led scholars to joining efforts towards making their research into top ranked journals. The citation analysis is clear in showing that Hofstede's work has been increasingly used in IB-related research. This growth occurs in spite of other cultural models that were and continue to be developed and in spite of the critiques that are recurrently debated and well known. Ferreira et al. (2009) had already noted the pervasiveness of culture-related emphasis in IB studies.

4.2. Co-citation analyses and mapping

The 655 articles identified as citing Hofstede (1980) used a combined total of 43,760 bibliographic references. The references used are the core component of co-citation analysis. In addition to the analysis of the entire period (Figure 2), we conducted a longitudinal analysis (Figures 3 to 5). For a better understanding of possible patterns, we split the time frame into three periods: 1980-1990, 1991-2000 and 2001-2010. An initial observation showed that in the period from 1980 to 1990, an eleven years period, the articles used 1,863 references, in the second period, from 1991 to 2000, 13,769 references and the articles published during 2001 to 2010, used 28,128 references. This is a remarkable increase in the number of references used, that surpasses the simple increase in the number of papers published. On average, each paper used 43 references in the first period, 62 in the second and 72 references in the third period (the last decade).

The co-citation networks are drawn with software Ucinet which permits identifying and grouping pairs of references. The software positions the dots in such a manner that the farther away from the center, the weaker the tie. That is, the less often the pair of works is co-cited by others, the further away from the center it will appear in the figure. The stronger ties highlight higher co-citation frequencies. It is worth noting that the network depicts only the 30 most salient co-citations by the 655 articles in our sample. Including more works would render undistinguishable ties in the networks.

The co-citation network in figure 2 refers to the entire period under examination: 1980 to 2010, a thirty one year period. At the core, or center, there is a stronger tie, or co-citation, between Hofstede (1980) and Kogut and Singh (1988) work on cultural distance. This tie is built of 217 co-citations--that is, 217 articles have jointly cited these two works. Second, the tie to Hofstede (1991), with 108 co-citations and to Johanson and Vahlne (1977), with 94 co-citations. These are followed by other strong ties, such as to Ronen and Shenkar (1985), Shenkar (2001), Bartlett and Ghoshal (1989), Hofstede and Bond (1988), Schwartz (1994), House et al. (2004) and Trompennars (1993). Although it is evident the strong ties to other cultural studies and classifications, we also observe ties to a variety of phenomena such as internationalization (JOHANSON; VAHLNE, 1977; KOSTOVA, 1999), entry modes (GATIGNON; ANDERSON, 1988; BARKEMA; VERMEULEN, 1998), institutional theory (DIMAGGIO; POWELL, 1983), resource dependence theory (PFEFFER; SALANCIK, 1978) and methodological issues (NUNNALLY, 1978).

[FIGURE 2 OMITTED]

To examine shifts over time, we split the sample into three periods (Figures 3 to 5). Figure 3 depicts the co-citation network in the first period, 1980 to 1990. The ties are particularly stronger to Haire, Ghiselli and Porter (1966), Pfeffer and Salancik (1978), Hofstede and Bond (1988), Adler (1983), Hofer and Schendel (1978) and Triandis (1971). These ties reflect both work on culture and its conceptualization, and studies dealing with managerial thinking. At the periphery a large variety of works that have come to be well known in both the strategic management and international business literature.

[FIGURE 3 OMITTED]

Figure 4 shows the co-citation network for the period 1991 to 2000. The ties are especially strong to Kogut and Singh (1988), Hofstede (1991), Hofstede and Bond (1988), Bartlett and Ghoshal (1989), Ronen and Shenkar (1985), Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961) and Johanson and Vahlne (1977). This network is remarkably different from the previous. Examining the entire network, we identify works that we may group in the transaction costs theory, theory of the multinational firm, internationalization as an evolutionary process, and several related to defining, conceptualizing and measuring culture in international business studies.

[FIGURE 4 OMITTED]

Figure 5 shows the co-citation network for the third period: 2001 to 2010. The more salient ties connect Hofstede (1980) to Kogut and Singh (1988), Shenkar (2001), Hofstede (1991), Johanson and Vahlne (1977), House et al. (2004), Kostova (1999), Bartlett and Ghoshal (1989) and Trompenaars (1993). In this network, we are also able to identify works on transaction costs and on culture but in contrast to the prior period, we observe many works we identify with a resource-, knowledge-, capabilities-based view of the firm.

[FIGURE 5 OMITTED]

It is especially interesting to see the remarkable changes that occurred over time. Even more notable is to observe that the concept of cultural distance (KOGUT; SINGH, 1988) gained rapid acceptance by academia. The third period denotes a substantial shift to the resource-based view, learning, knowledge and internal aspects of the firm, in contrast to a more transaction cost based view of the second period. However, it may seem surprising how Johanson and Vahlne 's (1977) work has moved to the center of the figure in the third period, from a rather peripheral position in the decade 1991-2000.

4.3. The themes delved into

The third analysis comprised examining the themes researched. To some extent, we may observe the themes delved into with the previous co-citation analysis, but a more fine-grained approach may be made. Figures 6 to 8 reveal the themes' networks in the three periods. These figures entail a procedure that relies on the cross correlations of the themes.

An examination of the following figures denotes substantial differences across periods. In Figure 6, including all data from 1991 to 2010, we observe stronger linkages to Environment, geography, clusters, Internationalization, entry modes and strategic advantage--IEMSA and Top management teams, human resource management.

[FIGURE 6 OMITTED]

A longitudinal analysis, separating the data in two periods allows us detect that the web of ties has noteworthy shifts over time--which is evidence of a shift in research emphasis. Specifically, in the first period 1991--2000, shown in Figure 7, the tie is stronger linking Culture to Methodologies, theories and research issues, and moderate to Internationalization, entry modes and strategic advantage--IEMSA, Performance and Top management team.

[FIGURE 7 OMITTED]

The second period, 2001 to 2010, shown in Figure 8, includes a larger diversity of research themes, namely with a greater emphasis on Environmental, geography, cluster, Top management team, human resources management and Methodologies, theories and research issues.

We may also observe an increase of importance on firm-specific factors and a resource-capabilities-based view that has been noted to permeate a broad variety of IB-related phenomena and studies (see PENG, 2001).

[FIGURE 8 OMITTED]

5. DISCUSSION

In this article, we sought to understand the importance of culture in international business research. Specifically we examined the extent to which has one of the most notable works Hofstede's (1980)--has, and continues to, impacted extant research. Albeit there are a number of taxonomies and classifications of culture, such as those of Schwartz, Trompenaars and more recently the Globe project, Hofstede has been recognized as one of the leading management scholars for its influence on an array of disciplines and fields of research. His 1980 work is one of the most cited works in all management/business literature. Moreover, we conduct an in-depth bibliometric analysis of articles published across eight highly ranked journals to actually disentangle how has Hofstede's work been used.

The seminal work of Hofstede (1980) has changed much of the IB research and how it is carried. His quantifiable taxonomy allowed researchers to truly incorporate culture in empirical studies. Other scholars have followed either advancing competing taxonomies or extending and testing on Hofstede. For instance, Schwartz (1994) work identified seven cultural values: Affective autonomy, Conservatism, Egalitarian commitment, Harmony, Hierarchy, Intellectual autonomy and Mastery. Another taxonomy was put forth by House and colleagues' (HOUSE et al., 2004) GLOBE project, comprising nine cultural dimensions: Assertiveness orientation, Family collectivism, Future orientation, Gender egalitarianism, Humane orientation, Institutional collectivism, Performance orientation, Power distance and Uncertainty avoidance. It is worth noting that the GLOBE project benefited from prior work, namely that of Hofstede, Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck and McClelland, among others. The usefulness of a more refined typology of the Hofstede's dimensions remains to be demonstrated. More recently, Leung and Bond sought to enlarge the cultural traits identified. The fact is that these and other works have provided convergent results to Hofstede and have thus supported the validity of Hofstede's (1980) cultural dimensions. Nonetheless, there is still much research that may be done using these other taxonomies as they have been less employed.

Concerning our results, a number of remarks are warranted. The co-citation networks are interesting not only to observe intellectual ties but also how the conversations evolved. The longitudinal analysis of the co-citation networks shows three distinct periods. In the first period, from 1980 to 1990, the network has at its core mostly other culture related works such as Triandis (1972), Haire and colleagues (1966), Ronen and Shenkar (1985), Ronen (1986) and then a variety of different perspectives on business, international business and strategy. Culture was fermenting and gaining its foothold in the field.

A substantially different co-citation network emerges in the second period--1991 to 2000 (see Figure 5). In addition to some of the mainstream theories, more notably the transaction costs theory (WILLIAMSON, 1975, 1985), the institutional theory (DIMAGGIO; POWELL, 1983; GATIGNON; ANDERSON, 1988) and theories of the firm specifically in the context of international business, we see the emergence of the multinational firm and the concern with how subsidiaries and headquarters should organize (PRAHALAD; DOZ, 1987; BARTLETT; GHOSHAL, 1989). Nonetheless, the large number of ties to other works on culture is remarkable (EARLEY, 1989; ADLER, 1991; EREZ; EARLEY, 1993; TROMPENAARS, 1993). Clearly this period is of consolidation with multiple other models emerging and questioning of what culture entails, its importance and how to construct it.

The third period (Figure 6), from 2001 to 2010, saw an enormous growth of studies based on the resource-, knowledge-, capabilities-based perspective (BARNEY, 1991). This also entails a different manner to incorporate culture into research. National cultures and cultural differences pose threats that firms need to overcome to succeed in their foreign operations (ZAHEER, 1995; KOGUT; SINGH, 1988; KOSTOVA; ZAHEER, 1999). However, different countries also present opportunities to be explored and from which firms may draw knowledge and resources to increase a competitive advantage. The impact of culture on foreign entry modes (BARKEMA; VERMEULEN, 1997, 1998) has an influence on how much learning occurs and the knowledge firms absorb (COHEN; LEVINTHAL, 1990; KOGUT; ZANDER, 1993). Notwithstanding, there are substantial traces that the academia is not pacified and culture-based studies still abound. Nonetheless, there is clearly more variety--that comes to characterize the discipline itself.

Examining the research themes delved into noteworthy differences also appear. Albeit our data is more limited in this regard, the first period (see Figure 7), 1991 to 2000, shows especially strong ties linking culture to methodologies and research issues, to performance, internationalization and entry modes and to competitive advantage. At least to some extent, this is the reflection of earlier concerns on the reasons why firms go abroad and how should they go about it. Many issues are much less attended to, such as the institutional theory, industry analysis, organizational structures for internationalization, and so forth. The focus shifted markedly in the following period (see Figure 8), from 2001 to 2010. During this period, environment, geography and clusters came to the forefront of research, probably much tied to learning and knowledge matters. In addition, broadly, this period is marked by a focus on internal aspects of the multinational. That meant observing capabilities, knowledge and the RBV, entry modes to either exploit competences held or increase the pool of resources to better compete in the future, networks and partnerships, more research on the institutional pressures, and so forth. The emphasis of research has changed and culture gained a role in helping to explain and contextualize why firms made the choices they did and how operations ought to be managed.

5.1. Limitations and future research

This paper has some limitations worth considering. First, and perhaps the simplest to overcome in future research, was the narrow scope of included journals. Extending from our eight journals to include, for example, disciplinary journals in the cross-cultural field or social psychology, business ethics, strategic management or international strategy, organizational behavior and so forth, may provide additional insights by probing into different disciplinary emphasis and research purposes. Indeed, constructs and theories are used in different disciplines in an also different manner and for distinct purposes.

Other limitations concern the method used. Citation and co-citation analyses have some drawbacks. However, we should point that citation frequency is a reasonable proxy to assess a paper's impact but future research may seek to observe the context in which citations are made. In addition, our analysis of the research themes did not entail a content analysis per se, but rather the use of the author-supplied keywords to infer the themes of their articles (FURRER et al., 2008). Although this approach is prima facie reasonable, as we explained, it does not fully capture or explain the context in which Hofstede 's work is quoted. In some instances, the cultural dimensions may be used as the dependent variable, in other as independent or control variables and even in other papers scholars may cite Hofstede to criticize his cultural taxonomy while supporting the use of another. Future research may overcome this limitation with a content analysis and other statistical techniques.

Finally, we examined Hofstede and not other models. It is a fact that Hofstede's cultural dimensions hold highest notoriety and are the most cited. Moreover, alternative cultural taxonomies have resorted to Hofstede's taxonomy and several studies have noted high correlation among cultural dimensions. Therefore, we are reasonably confident that we have a sample that is also representative of the work on culture and international business.

The practitioner implications of this study are scarce and not beyond the obvious importance that culture bears on multiple aspects of running a firm. For scholars, we need to take a step back on occasion to examine how the contribution of some authors does imprint both the discipline and the research agenda. More importantly, observe how a certain area of knowledge has been evolving. In this questioning, we may thus comprehend how some contributions reshape how research is done and allows us cross the current boundaries setting the pace and scope of future research endeavors. We believe that Hofstede's work is such a case, where by unpacking the black box that culture presented and by proposing a manner to measure cultural dimensions, it carried a huge impact on the field.

6. CONCLUDING REMARKS

It is undeniable the importance of culture in management studies. Cultural issues are the raison d 'etre of disciplines such as cross-cultural management but they are also a highly recurrent focus of international business research (FERREIRA; LI; GUISINGER; SERRA, 2009). While practitioners search for similarities across countries and cultures and researchers delve into their idiosyncrasies, if cultures were converging and cultural norms, beliefs and behaviors were becoming universal, then firms could also adopt similar practices and organizational forms regardless of the location. That is not the reality of business, and international business is not culture-free. Culture will continue to change and business practices and research will need to shift to accompany the novel needs and requirements for a better understanding.

DOI: 10.5700/rege536

Recebido em: 9/12/2012

Aprovado em: 5/5/2014

Manuel Portugal Ferreira

Professor de Estrategia do PPGA da Universidade Nove de Julho (Uninove) Sao Paulo-SP, Brasil

Professor Coordenador do STG--Instituto Politecnico de Leiria, Portugal

Doutor em Administracao pela Universidade de Utah, EUA

E-mail: [email protected]

Fernando Antonio Ribeiro Serra

Professor de Estrategia no PPGA da Universidade Nove de Julho (Uninove)--Sao Paulo-SP, Brasil

Doutor em Engenharia pela PUC-Rio

E-mail: [email protected]

Claudia Sofia Frias Pinto

Doutoranda em Administracao na FGV-EAESP--Sao Paulo-SP, Brasil

Mestranda em Gestao de Projetos na Universidade Nove de Julho (Uninove). Mestre em Negocios Internacionais pela ESTG--Instituto Politecnico de Leiria, Portugal

E-mail: [email protected]

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A complete list of references is available from the authors upon request

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Appendix--Author-supplied keywords grouped in major themes
Complete list available from the authors

Culture           Ambiguity; Attitudes; Beliefs; Chinese culture;
(n= 218)          Convergence and divergence of cultures;
                  Cosmopolitans and locals; Cross cultural; Cross
                  cultural leadership; Cross cultural management;
                  Cross-country comparison; Cross-country
                  differences; Cross-cultural adjustment; Cross-
                  cultural distributive justice values; Cross-
                  cultural ethics; Cross-cultural experiments;
                  Cross-cultural research/measurement issues;
                  Cross-cultural values; Cross-national diversity;
                  Cross-national research; Cultural context;
                  Cultural differences; Cultural dimensions;
                  Cultural distance; Cultural distance and psychic
                  distance; Cultural effectiveness; Cultural
                  framework(s); Cultural intelligence; Cultural
                  research paradigms and Globe; Cultural syndrome;
                  Cultural theory; Cultural values; Culture and
                  institutions; Culture and international
                  business; Culture change(s); Dialogue; Dimensions
                  of national culture and Globe Project;
                  Egalitarian; Ethic; Ethical ideologies; Ethnicity;
                  Global culture; Global management; Global mindset;
                  Global perspectives; GLOBE; GLOBE practices;
                  Hofstede; Individual attitudes; Individual
                  differences; Individualism; Individualism/
                  Collectivism; Intercultural management; Inter-
                  organizational culture; Language; Language
                  barriers Language design; Language diversity;
                  Long term orientation; Masculinity; Materialism;
                  Moral philosophy; Multiculturalism; National and
                  cultural influences; National cultural difference;
                  National culture; National values; Paternalism;
                  Perceived Culture novelty; Politeness; Power;
                  Power distance; Pride; Professional culture;
                  Psychic distance; Psychic distance paradox;
                  Psychological safety; Religiosity; Revisiting
                  cultural distance paradox; Social culture;
                  Socio-cultural and business ideology factors;
                  Subordinate ethics; Temporal rhythms; Traditional
                  Chinese workers; Uncertainty avoidance; Unethical
                  negotiation tactics; Universalist perspective;
                  Values; Values and benefits

Internatio-       Acquisition(s); Alliance joint ventures; Alliance
nalization,       performance; Alliance relationships; Born global;
entry modes       Cross-Border; Cross-Border Investments;
and strategic     Cross-Border Merger(s) and Acquisition(s); Early
advantage         Internationalization; Eclectic Paradigm; Entry
(n=143)           Location; Entry Mode(s); Entry mode choice; Entry
                  strategies; Entry timing; Establishment mode
                  choice; Export intermediary; Export market
                  performance; Exporting; Foreign; Foreign acquirer;
                  Foreign acquisitions; Foreign entry; Foreign
                  equity ownership; Foreign firms; Foreign market
                  knowledge; Foreign Subsidiary Ownership Structure;
                  Global projects; Globalisation; Globalization;
                  Hyper competition; IJV; Internalization theories
                  and foreign market entry; Internalization;
                  Internalization theory; International;
                  International acquisitions; International equity
                  joint ventures; International joint venture(s);
                  International management; International merger(s)
                  and acquisition(s); Internationalization equity
                  joint ventures; Joint venture(s); Joint venture
                  termination; Learning from experience; Licensing;
                  Market entry; Market orientation; Market
                  selection; Merger(s); Merger(s) and
                  acquisition(s); Modes of entry; Motivation; Post
                  merger integration; S-curve; Semi globalization;
                  Sequential investment; Wholly foreign owned
                  enterprise.

Environmental,    Complete list available from the authors
geography,
clusters and
regional
(n= 109)

Top management    Absenteeism; Career success; CEO compensation;
team, human       CEO succession; CEO's; Cognitive diversity;
resource          Computer-mediated communication; Corporate
management        culture; Corporate management; Decision-making;
(n=101)           Emotion; Employee development; Employee diversity;
                  Employee retention; Escalation of commitment;
                  Executive cognition; Executive compensation;
                  Executive demography; Executive values; Expatriate
                  adjustment; Expatriates; Gender role attitudes;
                  Global leaders; Global teams; Group development;
                  Human Resource Management; International
                  mentoring; Job characteristics; Job satisfaction;
                  Labour market mobility; Leadership; Managerial
                  cognition; Managerial decision making; Managerial
                  discretion; Managerial perceptions; Multicultural
                  teams; Multiple mentoring; Organization
                  commitment; Organizational citizenship behaviour;
                  Organizational power; Personality characteristics;
                  Strategic choice under uncertainly; Strategic
                  commitment; Strategic Human Resource Management;
                  Strategic leadership; Talent management;
                  Target/destination country; Teamwork; Top
                  Management Team(s); Transfer Of HR practices;
                  Transnational teams; Turnover; Upper Echelons;
                  Virtual teams; Work group.

Methodologies,    Complete list available from the authors
theories and
research
issues (n= 74)

Capabilities,     Absorptive capacity; Adverse selection;
knowledge,        Allocation; Asymmetrical culture distance;
resource-based    Boundary-spanning; Capabilities; Capabilities and
view (n=57)       capability development; Capabilities transfer;
                  Co-evolution; Competitive disadvantage;
                  Cross-cultural competence; Dynamic capabilities;
                  Experience; Experiential knowledge; Exploitation
                  and exploration; Firm factors; Firm-specific
                  advantages; Interdependence; International
                  experience; Knowledge; Knowledge acquisition;
                  Knowledge asset seeking; Knowledge flow; Knowledge
                  management; Knowledge sharing; Knowledge
                  spill-over; Knowledge-based perspective;
                  Knowledge-based view; Learning; Local market
                  competence; Neo-institutional theory;
                  Organizational capabilities; Organizational
                  learning; Organizational support; Organizational
                  values; Political capabilities; Portfolio;
                  Replication; Resources; Resource dependence
                  theory; Retention; Skill; Synergy.

Networks,         Alliance; Alliance performance; Alliance
alliances and     relationships; Buyer-supplier strategy; Buyer-
cooperative       supplier relations; Collaboration; Cooperation;
arrangements      Cooperativeness; Inter-firm exchange; Inter-firm
(n= 52)           relationship; International alliances;
                  International exchange; International
                  partnerships; Interpersonal networks; Multiparty
                  cooperation; Network; Network externalities;
                  Number of partners; Partner cooperation;
                  Partnership; Path; Personal relations; Political
                  relationships; Relational norms; Relational risk;
                  Relationship(s); Reputation spill over; Self-
                  efficacy; Social beliefs; Social capital; Social
                  networks; Social responsibility; Social trust;
                  Strategic alliance between competitors; Strategic
                  alliances; Trust; Trust fullness;

Subsidiaries,     Complete list available from the authors.
multinational
enterprises
(n= 43)

Performance       Complete list available from the authors.
(n= 41)

Institutional     Homophily; Institution(s); Institualism;
theory (n= 39)    Institutional context; Institution-based view of
                  foreign affiliate; Institutional knowledge;
                  Institutional economics; Institutional exceptions;
                  Institutional environment; Institutional theory;
                  Legitimacy; Legitimacy and competition; Normative
                  control; Embeddedness; Imitation; National
                  institutions; Neo-Institutional theory; Social
                  institutions.

Strategy and      Best practices; Changing international strategy;
competitive       Commitment; Competitive advantage; Competitive
advantage         dynamics; Hybrid production; Hybridization;
(n= 33)           Influence strategies; Liability of foreignness;
                  Market orientation; Political hazards; Response
                  strategies; Strategic change(s); Strategic
                  decision making; Strategic issues; Strategy
                  Formation; Strategy formation; Strategy
                  implementation; Temporary advantage; Threat

Foreign direct    Direction of investment; FDI location and timing;
investment        Foreign Direct Investment; Foreign expansion;
(n= 32)           Greenfield; Host country; International
                  investments; Manufacturer-foreign distributor
                  relationship; Opportunism; Risk and return in
                  foreign direct investment; Wholly foreign owned
                  enterprise.

Emerging          Bribery/corruption/fraud; Corruption; Developing
economies         countries; Emerging market(s); Emerging country;
(n= 26)           Emerging economies; Emerging market and Brazil;
                  Entrepreneurship in transition economies;
                  Management in transition economies; Property
                  rights; Russian privatization; Transition
                  economies; Transition economy; Transitional
                  economies.

International     Advertising in China; Advertising intensity;
marketing         Brand novelty; Comparative advertising; Consumer
(n= 24)           ethics; International marketing Strategy; Internet
                  shopping rate; Market novelty; Market segments;
                  Marketing; Marketing strategy; Media choice;
                  Middle East consumers; Online advertising;
                  Performance in distribution channels; Press
                  releases; Small firm marketing; Sponsorship;
                  Television Viewing; Women in advertising.

Industrial        Automobile; Automotive industry; Banks;
analysis          Biotechnology; Comparative financial; Electronic
(n=23)            communication; Financial institutions; Financial
                  markets; Financial services; Financial systems;
                  Hotel firms; Industry cultures; Industry position;
                  Insurance; Insurance consumption; Retail sector;
                  Retailer; Telecom industry; Telecommunications;
                  Internet; Universal banks.

R&D,              Breakthrough innovations; Diffusion; Digital-based
technology        economy; Innovation; Innovativeness; Innovation
and               influence; International R&D units; New
innovation        technologies; Patents; R&D; R&D management;
(n= 22)           Technical standards; Technological adoption;
                  Technological change; Technological space;
                  Technological systems; Technology; Technology
                  transfers.

Organization      Authority; Control; Control theory; Coordination;
structure         Delegation; External locus of control; Firm
(n= 20)           configuration; Integration; Integration
                  management; Keiretsu; Management control; MNC
                  decentralization; Monitoring; Organization change;
                  Organization restructuring; Organizations;
                  Ownership concentration; Ownership level; Virtual
                  organization.

Entrepre-         Corporative entrepreneurship; Entrepreneurial
neurship          efficacy; Entrepreneurial managers;
(n= 18)           Entrepreneurial proclivity; Entrepreneurship;
                  International entrepreneurship; International new
                  ventures; Kazakhstan entrepreneurs; Kyrgyzstan
                  entrepreneurs; Technology-based entrepreneurship.

Global,           Global competition; Global strategy; International
international,    business; International business strategy;
multinational     International expansion; International strategy;
strategies        Oligopolistic reaction; Political behaviour;
(n= 17)           Political risk; Risk; Strategy.

Financial         Disclosure; Information asymmetry; Integration
theory            process; Investor protection; Real options;
(n= 10)           Shareholder; Shareholder value; Shareholder value
                  creation; Voluntary disclosure.

Functional        Accounting; Contract completeness; Global supply
strategies        chain; IGV contract; Manufacturing; OEM; Project
(n=9)             management; Services; Value chain

Transaction       Distributor opportunism; Firm boundaries;
cost theory       Transaction Cost Economics; Transaction Cost
(n=6)             Theory; Transactional characteristics.

Others (n=50)     Complete list available from the authors

Total             1167

Table 1--Hofstede's most cited works: 1980 to 2010

Author (s)                     Reference                  Number of
                                                          citations
                                                           in ISI

Hofstede, G.     Culture's consequences: International      7,997
(1980)           differences in work related values,
                 Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Hofstede, G.     Cultures and organizations: Software       3,081
(1991)           of the mind, London: McGraw-Hill.

Hofstede, G.     The Confucius connection: From              507
& Bond, M.       cultural roots to economic growth,
(1988)           Organizational Dynamics, 16(4): 4-18.

Hofstede, G.,    Measuring organizational cultures: A        440
Neuijen, B.,     qualitative and quantitative study
Ohayv, D. &      across twenty cases, Administrative
Geert, S.        Science Quarterly, 35(2): 286-316.
(1990)

Hofstede, G.     Cultural constraints in management          387
(1993)           theories, Academy of Management
                 Executive; 7(1): 81-94.

Hofstede, G.     The cultural relativity of                  352
(1983)           organizational practices and
                 theories, Journal of International
                 Business Studies, 14(2): 75-89.

Hofstede, G.     Motivation, leadership, and                 280
(1980)           organization. Do American theories
                 apply abroad, Organizational
                 Dynamics, 9(1): 42-63.                      188

Hofstede, G.     National cultures in four dimensions:
(1983)           A research-based theory of cultural
                 differences among nations,
                 International Studies of Management
                 & Organization; 13(1-2): 46-74.

Hofstede, G.     Hofstede's cultural dimensions: An          180
& Bond, M.       independent validation using
(1984)           Rokeach's Value Survey, Journal of
                 Cross-Cultural Psychology; 15(4):
                 417-433.

The citation data comprises all Journals available in ISI.

Source: citation data retrieved from ISI
Web Knowledge (27.06.2011).

Table 2--Journals selected and citations to Hofstede (1980)

Journal title                         Years available    Number of
                                       in ISI web of     articles
                                       knowledge (1)     published
                                                        (1980-2010)
                                                            (2)

Academy of Management Journal            1958 - 2011         1,935
Academy of Management Review             1983 - 2011         1,998
Administrative Science Quarterly         1956 - 2011         1,876
International Business Review            2005 - 2011           288
Journal of International Business        1976 - 2011         1,649
  Studies
Organization Science                     1997 - 2011           432
Strategic Management Journal             1992 - 2011           941
Journal of World Business                1980 - 2011         1,828

Total                                                       10,947

Journal title                          Number      Total       C
                                      articles   citations
                                       citing       (3)
                                      Hofstede
                                       (1980)

Academy of Management Journal              74      17,239     3.8
Academy of Management Review               79      15,782     4.0
Administrative Science Quarterly           28      11,539     1.5
International Business Review              58       1,129    20.1
Journal of International Business         264       6,307    16.0
  Studies
Organization Science                       81       9,120    18.8
Strategic Management Journal               32      15,626     3.4
Journal of World Business                  39       1,035     2.1

Total                                     655      77,777     6.0

Notes: (1) not all journals had their entire track record available
in ISI. (2) number of articles published and available for
additional analysis. (3) number of citations to all articles
published in the journal. (4) Percentage of the articles published
in the journal that cited Hofstede (1980).

Source: data retrieved from ISI Web Knowledge. Computations by
the authors.