Watery sanitation and the millennium development goals.

Lenton, Roberto ; Lewis, Kristen ; Wright, Albert M. 等

Increasing access to domestic water supply and sanitation services, while at the same time improving water resources management and development, are catalytic entry points for efforts to fight poverty and hunger, safeguard human health, reduce child mortality, promote gender equality and manage and protect natural resources. They are, therefore, a critical component to the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)--the integrated set of eight goals and eighteen goal-specific, time-bound targets. The MDGs were adopted at the United Nations Millennium Summit with the objective to make real progress in tackling the most pressing issues facing developing countries. (1) The seventh Millennium Development Goal focuses on environmental sustainability, and one of the three specific targets within this goal is Target 10: to cut in half, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation. (2)

This article summarizes the work of the United Nations (UN) Millennium Project Task Force on Water and Sanitation--one of the ten task forces of the UN Millennium Project--and their three-year effort to identify the best strategies for meeting the MDGs established by UN Secretary General Kofi Annan in 2002. (3) The task force focused primarily on how the world can join together to meet MDG Target 10 and to optimize the role of water management and development in meeting the MDGs as a whole. This article also provides some insights and reflections on developments since the work of the Task Force on Water and Sanitation completed in 2005. Section one summarizes and highlights the important task force findings, including a focus on Target 10 of the MDGs, issues related to water as a resource for achieving the entire set of MDGs and the role of global support mechanisms. This section also presents the critical importance of sanitation and the role of institutions in water and sanitation. Section two outlines the task force's recommendations and highlights key events and policies that have transpired since the publication of the original report.

I. TASK FORCE REPORT: SUMMARY AND HIGHLIGHTS

Meeting Target 10: Identifying and Addressing the Key Obstacles

Some 2.6 billion of the world's 6.5 billion people lack access to even basic sanitation facilities, and about 1.1 billion people lack access to safe drinking water. (4) Halving the proportion of the population without safe drinking water and basic sanitation between the baseline year of 1990 and the target year of 2015, as called for by Target 10, presents formidable challenges, particularly for sanitation.

While global targets are important, what matters most is reaching the MDGs country-by-country through massive expansions of service into unserved remote rural areas and densely populated urban slums. In order to fulfill the dream of universal access to improved water supply and sanitation, the focus must be on sub-Saharan Africa and Asia. Within these areas, priority must be given to the ranks of the poor, therefore setting resource allocation parameters within countries.

What's Holding Us Back?

To develop effective strategies to meet the water and sanitation goals, it is best to start by discussing some of the political, institutional, financial and technical obstacles that have constrained progress to date. (5)

Political Constraints

Perhaps the most important political constraint curtailing progress in many countries is the lack of political leadership and government commitment to allocating sufficient national resources to meet the needs of the poor. The reasons for this lack of political will vary from case to case, but can include the capture of institutional processes by powerful political interests and the failure of specialists to make a compelling case about the benefits of water and sanitation. Furthermore, the kinds of changes needed to improve services to poor households can threaten the substantial benefits currently conferred on politically influential groups.

Furthermore, political leaders sometimes do not adequately grasp the different ways that poor water supply and sanitation services thwart development goals. In this case, information dissemination and awareness creation through concrete data can help in overcoming political resistance and providing the ammunition needed to make a case for prioritizing the sector. Reducing political interference in the day-to-day operations of water and sanitation agencies often requires broad policy and institutional reform.

Institutional Constraints

The lack of appropriate institutions at all levels, and the chronic dysfunction of the few institutions that do exist, are generally the key institutional constraints to expanding water and sanitation services. In many countries, sanitation has no institutional home per se, which creates a policy vacuum and low prioritization in decisionmaking.

Among existing institutions involved in the extension, operation and maintenance of water supply and sanitation services--both formal and informal--persistent constraints include: (1) inadequate capacity; (2) perverse incentives; (3) lack of accountability; and, (4) the absence of a transparent and sound regulatory system. For women, squatters and slum dwellers, legal barriers to owning and inheriting land can also limit their access to water and sanitation services, as can their status as renters of dwellings with absentee owners. A critical constraint, therefore, is the failure to align institutional mechanisms to the specific needs of the poor. This includes failure to adopt pro-poor governance approaches.

Financial Constraints

Ensuring access to water and sanitation services requires money, and thus it is no surprise that poverty from household to national levels is a principal barrier to expanding coverage. Some households simply cannot afford the costs of improved services without outside assistance, while many poor countries simply do not have the money to meet the costs of providing and sustaining water services. (6)

Investment can be derived from national or subnational government tax revenues, user charges, output-based aid, cross-subsidies from users who can afford to pay, private-sector investment or official development assistance (ODA). Yet, each of these sources of finance in low-income countries is problematic. For example, annual private sector investment in water supply and sanitation for developing countries has declined every year since its peak in 1997. Trends in ODA indicate that support for water and sanitation infrastructure is very modest and not directed to those countries that need it most. Furthermore, support for such infrastructure is hampered by the prerequisite condition that certain reforms need to be in place to ensure effective and accountable use of funds. (7)

Technical Challenges

While experience over the last several decades has shown that non-technical factors--such as financing and institutions--are often the most important explanations for the persistent lack of access to water and sanitation services, it is important not to overlook the role of technical challenges in expanding services to poor communities.

A wide range of technologies are available to water supply and sanitation services. In poor countries, a key issue is the development and adoption of cost-saving designs, which would enable more unserved households to be reached for a given investment.

Optimizing Water Resources for the MDGs

As emphasized earlier, sound water resources development and management underpins attainment of virtually all the Millennium Development Goals. Investments in water resources development and management can contribute to meeting the MDGs as a whole, both through broad interventions designed to promote sustainable development on an area basis--such as multipurpose river basin development and aquifer management--and through targeted actions addressing one or more particular goals in a specific location, such as watershed management within degraded areas farmed by poor families.

Meeting the MDGs will require a two-prong strategy, involving investment in water resources development and management as well as an integrated approach. Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM)--an approach that promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources in ways that are efficient, equitable and environmentally sound--offers a means of doing this. (9)

The availability of freshwater resources can be disaggregated into four principal dimensions: quantity, quality, spatial variability and temporal variability The requirement for freshwater resources also has goal-specific dimensions, meaning that the nature of the water resources actions needed to meet the MDGs will vary from goal to goal. For example, to meet the poverty goal, countries will need to use water for productive purposes to ensure livelihoods in water-dependent sectors such as agriculture, industry, energy, transportation and fisheries. They will also need to control water variability since households living at the brink of survival can easily be devastated by a single extreme water-related event, such as a flood or drought.

The specific actions that a particular country or region should take to improve water resources management depend on the relationship between the supply and requirement for water resources, as well as socioeconomic, political and historical circumstances. Clearly, natural endowments give countries and regions different starting points vis-a-vis development and management of water resources, but countries that start from behind--with high variability and low per capita freshwater availability--can overcome these constraints through appropriate investments and management arrangements. Also, given the complex relationship between water resources and poverty, hunger, gender and environmental sustainability, coordinated water management will have to be a fundamental component of any national strategy to attain the Millennium Development Goals.

The Johannesburg Plan of Action that emerged from the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development called for all countries to develop IWRM and water efficiency plans by 2005. (10) The 2005 Task Force Report concluded that, if properly designed, national processes and strategies resulting from these plans could establish an enabling framework that encourages the kind of pro-poor water management and service delivery mechanisms required for MDG achievement.

Since the release of the task force report, progress has been mixed. An informal survey released by the Global Water Partnership (GWP) in March 2006 at the 4th World Water Forum in Mexico suggested that, of the ninety-five countries that responded, twenty already had water plans, strategies or a process well underway that incorporated an IWRM approach, while a quarter of the responding countries had taken only initial steps towards preparing water plans or strategies. In 2007, at the recommendation of the UN Secretary General's Advisory Board on Water and Sanitation, the Secretary General requested that all countries report officially on their progress towards the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) target at the next session of the Commission on Sustainable Development, to be held in May 2008. (11)

Further Challenges: The Daunting Reality of Sanitation

Largely as a result of the efforts of the UN Secretary General's Advisory Board on Water and Sanitation (UNSGAB), the UN General Assembly has declared this year, 2008, the International Year of Sanitation, in which the stated goal is to put the global community on track to achieve the sanitation MDG. (12) In particular, the International Year of Sanitation aims to increase awareness and commitment from actors at all levels; mobilize governments (from national to local) and their national and international partners; and secure real commitments to review, develop and implement effective action to strengthen and scale up sanitation programs and policies. An action plan has been prepared to outline the contributions of the United Nations agencies and partners to the International Year of Sanitation, which includes such activities as raising awareness, releasing new and updated publications, advocacy, monitoring access and commitments, advancing implementation, strengthening capacities and evaluating costs and benefits. (13) Several national and international agencies and institutions, active in water supply and sanitation, are reassessing their programs and according higher priority to sanitation activities.

The Special Case of Sanitation

Behind the polite term "lack of sanitation" is this grim reality: men, women and children with no choice but to defecate in plastic bags, buckets and open pits, alongside roads and railway tracks, in agricultural fields and public spaces. More than 2.5 billion people--42 percent of the world's population--lack a private, safe toilet. Imagine, for a moment, being left with no choice but to defecate behind a tree outside the workplace or school, or in plain view of one's neighbors and friends. This is the reality for literally billions of people.

If this is the reality, why is sanitation such a forgotten subject? The reasons are many, including the strong taboos against discussing human wastes, the fact that the poor have less of a voice in determining national or community priorities and often have more pressing concerns, and the reality that, in many developing countries, women who generally place a much higher priority on sanitation than do men--have limited political and personal power. But this is often compounded by the lack of a national-level institution for promoting sanitation and by the ongoing debate regarding the proper allocation of responsibilities for improving and managing sanitation.

Greater human health gains accrue from the provision of sanitation than from the provision of safe water. The sanitation crisis is the bigger problem and solving it would have bigger payoffs. Yet, sanitation and hygiene receive substantially less attention, funding and priority than water supply. Without a sharp acceleration in the rate of progress, many countries will miss the sanitation target. (14)

Global Institutional Mechanisms for Supporting Water and Sanitation

While action to meet the MDGs should take place principally at national and subnational levels, these efforts need to be supported by action at the global level, and especially by the UN system and related networks and partnerships. Currently, some twenty-four UN organizations, and a smaller number of global networks and partnerships, are involved in water supply and sanitation and water resources management. However, there is no single lead agency for water in the way that the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations is for agriculture and the World Health Organization (WHO) is for health. This means that ensuring coordinated and effective MDG-focused action is problematic--a challenge exacerbated by a reduced emphasis within the system on water and sanitation, wide gaps between mandated responsibilities and delivery capacity and a resulting inability to provide intellectual and practical leadership. Partly as a result, several international networks and partnerships have emerged in the last couple of decades, such as the Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council (WSSCC), the Global Water Partnership (GWP) and the World Water Council (WWC), as well as faith-based organizations and nongovernmental organizations like WaterAid. (15) This diversity of actors--all active in technical analyses, knowledge-sharing and advocacy--adds to the strength of support and advocacy efforts, but also creates new coordination challenges.

At the global level, provision of leadership and strategic guidance to the international community are essential. UN system organizations, key operational actors and others involved in water and sanitation must be involved in this through a clear mechanism, which should build on each organization's strengths and comparative advantages and reduce duplication. One important development since the task force report was published is the increased mandate and widened participation of UN-Water--the entity that brings together all the UN agencies working on water issues. In particular, there have been recent efforts to provide UN-Water with the necessary funds and staff, which are helping this body to become a stronger advocate for global action on water and sanitation and to lead, strengthen and support national scaling-up efforts. A second important development is the leadership role being played by the UNSGAB. Its role in establishing the Water Operators Partnerships, launching the International Year of Sanitation and getting countries to report on progress towards IWRM illustrates the way in which this body is providing strategic direction, identifying critical obstacles to progress and making recommendations for overcoming them. A further example of global leadership efforts is the decision by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) to focus its Human Development Report of 2006 on water and sanitation. This report argues that "prospects for human development are threatened by a deepening global water crisis and that poverty, power and inequality are at the heart of the problem." (16) The report called for a concerted drive to achieve water and sanitation for all through national strategies and a global plan of action. Finally, the decision by the organizers of the 4th World Water Forum in Mexico to focus on local-level action and on access to water and sanitation and IWRM also sent a strong message on the need to advance local-level action in these two vital areas. (17)

II. HOW TO MAKE THE GOALS A REALITY

Based on the above analyses, the task force concluded that, although reaching the water and sanitation target will not be easy, particularly in the very poorest parts of the world, it is possible to meet the target and to optimize water resources management for the entire set of MDGs. The critical question is, how? Specifically, what are the actions that are essential to meeting the MDGs?

To answer this question, the task force set the stage by first identifying five urgent and critical preconditions, without which the MDGs simply cannot be achieved. Specifically, the task force stated that the water and sanitation target will not be reached unless there is: (1) deliberate commitment by donors to increase and refocus their development assistance and to target sufficient aid to the poorest low-income countries; (2) commitment by governments of middle-income countries that are not aid-dependent to reallocate their resources such that they target funding to the unserved poor; (3) activities to create support and ownership for water supply and sanitation initiatives among both women and men in poor communities; (4) recognition that basic sanitation, in particular, requires an approach that centers on community mobilization and actions that support and encourage that mobilization; and, (5) agreement that the MDGs as a whole will not be met unless there is deliberate planning and investment in sound water resources management and infrastructure. (18)

Meeting the water and sanitation target by 2015 will require a dramatic scaling-up of efforts--dramatic in terms of both the extent of action required and the speed with which these actions must be undertaken. Scaling-up will require significant investments, both in infrastructure as well as institutional strengthening and reform. The task force identified ten actions that together provide the basis for doing so. These actions are summarized in Box 1.

Box 1: Ten critical actions for achieving the water and sanitation
target and fostering the sound management of water resources for all
the MDGs

Action 1
Governments and other stakeholders must move the sanitation crisis
to the top of the agenda.

Action 2
Countries must ensure that policies and institutions for water supply
and sanitation service delivery, as well as for water resources
management and development, respond equally to the different roles,
needs and priorities of women and men.

Action 3
Governments and donor agencies must simultaneously pursue investment
and reforms for improved water supply, sanitation and water
management.

Action 4
Efforts to reach Target 10 must focus on sustainable service delivery,
rather than construction of facilities atone.

Action 5
Governments and donor agencies must empower local authorities and
communities with the authority, resources and professional capacity
required to manage water supply and sanitation service delivery.

Action 6
Governments and utilities must ensure that users who can pay do pay
in order to fund the operation, maintenance and expansion of
services. They must also ensure that the needs of poor households
are met.

Action 7
Within the context of national MDG-based poverty reduction
strategies, countries must elaborate coherent water resources
development and management plans that will support the achievement
of the MDGs.

Action 8
Governments and their civil society and private sector partners
must support a wide range of water and sanitation technologies
and service levels that are technically, socially, environmentally
and financially appropriate.

Action 9
Institutional, financial and technological innovation must be
promoted in strategic areas.

Action 10
The United Nations system organizations and their Member States
must ensure that the UN system and its international partners
provide strong and effective support for the achievement of the
water supply and sanitation target and for water resources
management and development.

Updates and Reflections

The Millennium Development Goals were agreed upon in the year 2000, and the Millennium Project Task Force on Water and Sanitation concluded its work in early 2005. Three years later, it is useful to take stock of what has happened since that time.

One important milestone event since the Task Force Report is, of course, the World Summit that was held in September 2005. The UN Millennium Project's overall report, as part of which the task force report was prepared, was launched in early 2005 as a major intellectual input to the summit. (19) While comprehensive in scope, its central argument was that all developing countries should adopt and implement comprehensive national development strategies to achieve the MDGs, while rich countries should substantially increase their development assistance to make implementation of these strategies feasible. The summit itself essentially adopted this two-prong approach to a global strategy and partnership to achieve the MDGs. Moreover, the summit's outcome document not only endorsed the need to ensure access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation as already provided for in MDG Target 10, but also emphasized the need for assisting developing countries' efforts to prepare IWRM and water efficiency plans as part of their national development strategies. Thus, the immediate objective of influencing the outcome of the World Summit was certainly achieved.

Beyond the 2005 World Summit, it is possible to identify at least three areas highlighted in the task force's recommendations where there has been important progress at the global level since the report was issued. The UN General Assembly declaration of 2008 as the International Year of Sanitation, noted earlier, has already gone a long way towards mobilizing governments and other stakeholders to "move the sanitation crisis to the top of the agenda" (Action 1). The Secretary General's request to all countries to report officially on their progress towards the WSSD target on IWRM at the 2008 session of the Commission on Sustainable Development is likewise supportive of the call for countries to "elaborate coherent water resources development and management plans that will support the achievement of the MDGs" (Action 7). Also, the increased mandate and widened participation of UN-Water--as well as the leadership role being played by the UNSGAB--constitute important initial responses to the need for the UN system to "provide strong and effective support for the achievement of the water supply and sanitation target and for water resources management and development" (Action 10).

Finally, it is important to reflect on the impact that the agreement of a specific target on water and sanitation within the set of Millennium Development Goals has had in and of itself. Certainly, no other decision since the 1981-1990 International Drinking Water and Sanitation Decade has done more to increase recognition of water and sanitation as an issue of fundamental development significance. But this huge step forward has also had an unintended side effect in that other hugely important roles of water in development--such as being a factor of production in agriculture and other economic activities that provide livelihoods for poor people--have been perhaps overshadowed. One key remaining challenge, therefore, is for countries not only to pursue the attainment of Target 10, but also to identify the role of water resources in the achievement of each of the MDGs and ensure that the needed investments in water resources infrastructure and management are included in their national development plans.

NOTES

(1) The UN Millennium Development goals: http://www.undp.org/mdg/goallist.shtml and http://www.un.org/-millennium/summit.htm.

(2) Tracking the Millennium Development Goals: http://www.mdgmonitor.org/goal7.cfm.

(3) The full analysis, as well as all necessary reference information, can be found in the Final Report of the Task Force, of which the authors of this article were the lead authors. The full reference for this report is UN Millennium Project Task Force on Water and Sanitation, Final Report, "Health, Dignity and Development: What Will it Take?" (London and Sterling, Va.: Earthscan Publications Ltd, 2005).

(4) Unless otherwise indicated, all data in this section are drawn from WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation (World Health Organization and United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund Joint Monitoring Program), "Meeting the MDG Drinking Water and Sanitation Target: A Mid-Term Assessment of Progress" (2004). Data on water supply and sanitation are usually described using the term "improved" rather than "safe" or "basic," since data are collected by defining a specific set of technologies that are categorized as "improved."

(5) See also the barriers cited in the UNDP Human Development Report (2006), which include national policy, behavior, perception, poverty, gender and supply. Importantly, many of the root causes of the constraints to water and sanitation lie outside the sector itself, http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2006.

(6) Guy Hutton and Jamie Bartram, "Global Costs of Attaining the Millenium Goals for Water Supply and Sanitation," Bulletin of the World Health Organization 81, no. 1 (January 2008). They have estimated that total spending required in all developing countries, excluding program costs, is $4 billion per year to meet the water target and $14 billion per year to meet the sanitation target. However, the critical question is how much it will cost to meet the targets within particular countries. The Millennium Project has developed a methodology, for carrying out such national-level needs assessments; see UN Millennium Project at http://www.unmillenniumproject.org.

(7) See Development Assistance Committee (DAC) of the OECD, "Aid for Water Supply and Sanitation," from "Water for the Poorest" (International Water Academy Seminar, The World Water Week, Stockholm, Sweden, 19 August 2004).

(8) UN Millennium Project Task Force on Water and Sanitation, 2005.

(9) Global Water Partnership Technical Advisory Committee, "Integrated Water Resources Management" (Background Paper no. 4, Stockholm, Sweden: March 2000), http://www.gwpforum.org/gwp/library/Tacno4.pdf.

(10) See UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Division for Sustainable Development, http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/documents/WSSD_POI_PD/English/POIToc.htm.

(11) Global Water Partnership, "Setting the Stage for Change" (second informal survey by the GWP network giving the status of the 2005 WSSD target on national integrated water resources management and water efficiency plans, February 2006).

(12) United Nations Secretary General's Advisory Board on Water and Sanitation, "Hashimoto Action Plan: Compendium of Actions," March 2006.

(13) See International Year of Sanitation, http://esa.un.org/iys.

(14) WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation, "Meeting the MDG Drinking Water and Sanitation Target: A Mid-Term Assessment of Progress," 2004.

(15) WaterAid at http://www.wateraid.org.uk; Global Water Partnership at http://www.gwpforum.org; World Water Council at http://www.worldwatercouncil.org; and Water Aid at http://www.wateraid.org.uk.

(16) United Nations Development Programme, "Beyond Scarcity: Power, Poverty and the Global Water Crisis," (UNDP Human Development Report: 2006).

(17) National Water Commission 2006 Mexico (Comision Nacional del Agua), http://www.conagua.gob.mx.

(18) United Nations Millennium Project, 2005.

(19) UN Millennium Project, "Investing in Development: A Practical Plan to Achieve the Millennium Development Goals," (United Nations Development Programme: January 2005).

Table 1a

MDGs and Relevant Contributions of Contributions of
Targets Domestic Water Supply Sound Water Resources
 and Sanitation Management and
 Development

Poverty Household livelihood Water is a factor of
To halve the security rests on the production in
proportion of the health of its agriculture, industry
world's people whose members; adults who and other economic
income is less than are ill themselves or activities that
$1/day who must care for provide livelihoods
 sick children are for poor people.
 less productive.

Hunger Healthy people are Water is a direct
To halve the better able to absorb input to irrigation
proportion of the the nutrients in food for expanded food
world's people who than those suffering production.
suffer from hunger from water-and-
 sanitation-
 related diseases.

Primary Education Improved water and Improved water
To ensure that sanitation service management reduces
children everywhere relieve girls from the incidence of
complete a full water-fetching catastrophic events
course of primary duties, allowing them like floods that
schooling to attend school. interrupt educational
 attainment.

Gender Equality Reduced time, health, Community-based
To ensure girls and and care-giving organizations for
boys have equal burdens from improved water management can
access to primary water services give improve social
and secondary women more time for capital of women
education productive endeavors, through leadership
 adult education, and networking
 empowerment opportunities and
 activities, leisure. solidarity building.
 Girls' toilets and
 latrines in secondary
 schools help keep
 adolescent girls in
 school.

Child Mortality Improved sanitation, Well-managed water
To reduce by safe drinking water resources help poor
two-thirds the death sources, and greater people make a decent
rate for children quantities of living and reduce
under five domestic water for their vulnerability
 washing reduce infant to shocks, which in
 and child morbidity turn gives them more
 and mortality. secure and fruitful
 livelihoods to draw
 upon in caring for
 their children.

Table 1b

MDGs and Relevant Contributions of Contributions of
Targets Domestic Water Supply Sound Water Resources
 and Sanitation Management and
 Development

Maternal Mortality Accessible sources of Improved nutrition
To reduce by water reduce labor and food security
three-fourths the burdens and health through better water
rate of maternal problems resulting management reduces
mortality from water portage, susceptibility to
 reducing maternal diseases that can
 mortality risks. complicate pregnancy.

Major Disease Safe drinking water Improved water (and
To halve, halt and and basic sanitation wastewater)
begin to reverse the help prevent management in human
spread of HIV, water-related settlements reduces
malaria, other major diseases, including transmission risks of
diseases diarrheal diseases, mosquito-borne
 schistosomiasis, illness like malaria
 filariasis, trachoma and dengue fever.
 and helminthes.

Environmental Adequate treatment Improved water
Sustainability and disposal of management, including
To stop the excreta and pollution control and
unsustainable wastewater contribute water conservation,
exploitation of to less pressure on is a key factor in
natural resources freshwater resources. maintaining
 ecosystems integrity.

To cut in half the Inadequate access to Slum settlements are
proportion of people safe water and often built on sites
without sustainable inadequate access to particularly
access to safe sanitation and other vulnerable to
drinking water and infrastructure are water-related
basic sanitation two of the five disasters, which can
 defining be reduced through
To improve the lives characteristics of a better water
of 100 million slum slum. management and
dwellers by 2020 development.

Develop Global Promotion of Transboundary water
Partnerships for partnerships in the resources development
Development field among NGOs, often entails global
 governments, partnerships.
 bilaterals, and
 regional and
 international banks.