The acquisition of life skills through adventure-based activities and programs: a review of the literature.

Moote, Gerald T., Jr. ; Wodarski, John S.

INTRODUCTION

Today, students must make choices about involvement with gangs and violence, alcohol and drugs, sex and pregnancy, and other potentially damaging risk-taking behaviors. In addition, students routinely face difficult environmental Stressors that include, but are not limited to divorce/single parent family, domestic violence, parental drug and alcohol use/abuse, physical and sexual abuse, and neglect.

Estimates of the prevalence of problems affecting elementary and secondary school students are varied. Researchers estimate that 16% (Rumberger, 1986) to 25% (Ranbom, 1986) of students drop out of high school prior to graduation, with the incidence of inner-city dropout posited as being significantly higher (Ranbom, 1986).

Another often studied problem pertains to alcohol and drug use. One large-scale study indicated that 17% of high school seniors reported that they had been drunk by the eighth grade. This figure rose to 71% of the polled seniors who reported that they had been drunk by the twelfth grade (Toward a Drug-Free Generation, 1990). Fifteen percent of eighth graders reported that they had tried cigarettes, while 16% reported regular cigarette use (Toward a Drug-Free Generation, 1990). Fifteen percent of eighth graders and 44% of high school seniors reported that they had tried marijuana (Toward a Drug-Free Generation, 1990).

With regard to the issue of sex and pregnancy among elementary and secondary school students, it is evident that they are faced with significant life decisions at increasingly early ages. Hamburg (1993) reported that in the United States, two thirds of all out of wedlock births can be accounted for by teenagers and that there are now 6 million children under the age of five who are living with mothers who gave birth during their adolescent years. It is common knowledge that the rate of teenage pregnancy in the United States is one of the highest in the developed countries (Alan Guttmacher Institute, 1981; Department of Health Education and Welfare, 1980). It has also been estimated that eight out of ten girls who become pregnant before their 17th birthday will not finish high school (Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 1980). Card and Wise (1978) found the consequences of teenage childbearing to be more severe than for other circumstances such as SES, minority status, and low academic aptitude.

Examination of abuse and neglect issues also highlight environmental stressors which many children experience. Finkelhor (1984) found that between 9 and 52% of females and 3 to 9% of the males in his study were exposed to sexual abuse as children. According to Tower (1989), the National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect estimates that in the United States between 100,000 and 200,000 children are physically abused each year. Additionally, the National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect (NCCAN) reported that child neglect has been found to occur 50% more often than abuse (NCCAN, 1988).

Hamburg (1993) reported that close to half the children of married parents will be exposed to parental divorce by their sixteenth birthday. He points out that "most American children spend part of their childhood in a single-parent family." It is estimated that female-headed families are approximately five times more likely to be poor than are married families (Rosen, Fanshel, & Lutz, 1987).

Poverty is also a significant stressor to children and families. In 1983, 22% of all children under the age of 18 lived below the poverty level, representing 40% of poor people in this country (Rosen, Fanshel, & Lutz, 1987).

The above conditions are raised in order to emphasize many of the issues confronting elementary and secondary school students today. It appears that social workers in these schools have been increasingly called upon to intervene on behalf of students facing any/all of these problems. Identifying and utilizing effective preventive and/or intervention methods appears to be an increasingly important task for social workers operating in an environment of diminishing financial resources.

Assessment

It appears that the attention given to the problems, environmental stressors, and dysfunctional behaviors of students has allowed for the creation of the "at-risk" label to identify a wide range of children. Some authors have used this label to identify students at risk for dropping out of school (Wells, 1990; Slavin, 1989). Others have utilized a wider scope in defining the at-risk child, looking not only at probability of high school graduation, but at preparation for employment, use of drugs and/or alcohol (Tindall, 1988). Students also could be considered at risk if they are likely to complete school with inadequate basic skills (Slavin, 1989). Other possible labels include: disadvantaged, culturally deprived, underachiever, nonachiever, low ability, slow learner, less able, low socioeconomic status (SES), language impaired, dropout prone, alienated, marginal, disenfranchised, impoverished, underprivileged, low performing, and remedial (Lehr & Harris, 1988).

Checklists have been created to assist in assessment of at-risk students. Wells (1990) categorized at-risk student characteristics into four areas: school, community, student, and family related. Bhaerman and Kopp (1988) listed factors related to dropping out of school: behavioral, family, and psychological. West (1991) reports that using the checklist approach for assessment may result in mislabeling since it does not account for local differences. Wells, Bechard, and Hamby (1989) also advocate a more complete data collection process when assessing at-risk students, and caution against the utilization of a single assessment instrument. Such additional data include student records, attitude surveys, and exit interviews (Wells, Bechard, & Hamby, 1989).

Upon examination of characteristics of the at-risk student via assessment checklists, certain commonalities emerge. In checklists developed by Wells (1990) and Bhaerman and Kopp (1988), the following family characteristics were identified: low SES, family mobility/change in schools, belonging to a minority group, and abuse. The individual student characteristics identified in both checklists included poor attitude toward school, low achievement/GPA, attendance and truancy problems, poor self-concept/self-esteem, low aspirations/goals, health problems, student employment, association with friends who have dropped out, criminal/delinquent behavior, difficulty with peer relationships, drug abuse, and discipline problems in school (Wells, 1990; Bhaerman & Kopp, 1988).

Other school characteristics were identified by one checklist only: low teacher expectations, lack of language instruction, cultural conflict between home and school, overcrowded classrooms, counseling referrals/lack of counseling, poor facilities, inadequate curriculum, negative school environment, institutional discrimination, higher graduation requirements, retention, suspension, placement in special programs, placement in tracks other than high academics, low standardized test scores (Wells, 1990), lower occupational aspirations, difficulty in abstract reasoning, generalizing, and forming relationships, not reading at grade level, difficulty with math, and low perceptual performance (Bhaerman & Kopp, 1988).

Family-related characteristics included: single-parent home, more older siblings than friends, little solidarity with family, exposed to dropout at home, lack of cultural and economic experiences related to success in traditional schools (Bhaerman & Kopp, 1988), low parental education and occupation, non-English speaking, stress in the home, parental noninvolvement, and ineffective parenting (Wells, 1990).

Other characteristics included: nonparticipation in extracurricular activities, impulsive decision making, feel that courses are not relevant, socially isolated, rejected by peers, poor relationships with authority figures, attraction to outside jobs, wages, and experiences (Bhaerman & Kopp, 1988), pregnancy/marriage, negative police involvement, lack of student responsibility, lack of community support services, lack of school-community linkages, and loss of neighborhood schools (Wells, 1990).

The assessment/identification of at-risk students appears to be a multi-faceted process and requires information from a variety of sources in order to make sure services are offered to students who can benefit most from them.

Selected Theoretical Issues of Adolescence:

Given that many students identified as at-risk are early adolescents (13-17 years old), a brief review of related theoretical issues is presented.

The life span development model views early adolescence as the stage for completion of several developmental tasks. Among these are physical maturation, the cognitive shift from concrete to formal operational thought, emotional intensity, and the increasing importance of membership in a peer group (Newman & Newman, 1987). The central process during this stage has been reported as peer pressure. It is at this stage that many risk-taking behaviors, including drug and alcohol use, may occur. Increased risk taking in adolescence has been documented through data on motor vehicle accidents (New York State, 1979), and may be related to increased testosterone levels and/or a pleasurable adrenaline high produced within the peer social context (Cove, 1985). The psychosocial crisis of group identity vs. alienation is experienced in this stage (Newman & Newman, 1987).

Erikson (1959) described the adolescent "normative" crisis as identity vs. role confusion. He characterized this stage as a time when the individual struggles to develop ego identity, becomes preoccupied with physical appearance, and involved with a group identity. Shertzer and Stone (1980) described role confusion as an "inability to fix on the kind of person one wants to be." The peer group has been described as a primary location for social growth and change (Kaplan & Sadock, 1988). Role testing and a challenge of moral values also may occur during this period. Identity is described as having a clear sense of who one is and where one is going (Erikson, 1959).

Kaplan and Sadock (1988) describe adolescence as the period where the child begins to experience emphasis on vocational choices from a variety of significant others. They posit that the "sense of individual self-worth as an adult rests on the acquisition of competence during adolescence," and that this competence may be achieved "by experiencing success in a task that our society views as important."

Life-Skills Training

Life-skills training has been defined as "the formalized teaching of requisite skills for surviving, living with others, and succeeding in a complex society" (Hamburg, 1990). Wodarski (1988) reported that life-skills training was "proposed as the treatment of choice" when applied to prevention with adolescents. Gilchrist, Schinke, and Maxwell (1987) reported that life skills which assist in the development of an adolescent's self-efficacy "include the ability to solve problems, to communicate honestly and directly, to gain and maintain social support, and to control emotions and personal feelings."

Early adolescence is a time of transition for students. It has been noted in the literature as a prime point for providing preventive and life-skills programs to children (Elias & Branden-Muller, 1994; Wodarski & Wodarski, 1993), Knight and Wadsworth (1994) maintain that teachers should provide "firsthand experiences of an exploratory nature" to at-risk middle school students for authentic learning to occur.

Life-skills programs vary in the types and quality of services they provide. Kraizer (1990) stated that "essential components of any life-skills curriculum are based on the development of fundamental, generalized interpersonal skills." Hamburg (1990) reported that successful life-skills programs appeared to have similar core elements. Effective programs addressed developmental needs, health promotion/problem prevention, and high-risk groups.

In addressing the needs of adolescents in life-skills programs, emphasis is often placed on social competence. This includes skills in communication, decision-making, and problem solving (Hamburg, 1990). Brown (1988) found decision-making to be a crucial skill in adolescent development, particularly concerning dependence/independence issues. Kraizer (1990) includes these skills and others in her view of a progressive life-skills program. Other skills include the development and maintenance of interpersonal relationships and high self-esteem, taking personal responsibility for one's actions, preventing child abuse, substance abuse, and pregnancy, managing personal behavior and choices, and working flexibly toward the attainment of set goals (Kraizer, 1990). These characteristics are echoed by Elias & Branden-Muller (1994) who include motivation, sound work and values, appreciation of a multiracial society, engagement in health-enhancing activities, and motivation as factors necessary to become productive citizens.

Hamburg (1990) differentiates between types of life-skills programs: programs which address a wider range of generic social competencies such as problem solving, pro-social behaviors, decision-making and communication skills, and programs that focus on a specific skill acquisition. Popular educational programs with a specific focus include those that address drug and alcohol prevention, health and wellness, assertiveness training, and sexual abuse and abduction prevention. Involving parents of participants in the program appeared to enhance its effectiveness (Hamburg, 1990).

Additionally, Wodarski (1988) discussed two empirically based models for adolescent health education and prevention programming: the Life-Skills Training model and the Teams-Games-Tournament model. Within these two frameworks, the author suggests that adolescents can learn and retain various life skills such as problem-solving, communication, and refusal responses under social pressures. The applicability of the group setting is also highlighted.

Adventure-Based Model and Social Work

Participation in adventure programs has become an increasingly popular prevention and/or intervention approach to working with adolescents on life-skills issues such as communication, group problem-solving, interperson skills, and group cooperation. Adventure-based learning approaches and experiences are not new; their roots can be traced back to Kurt Hahn and the Outward Bound schools of the 1920s, and even to the works of Plato in the fourth century B.C. (Hopkins & Putnam, 1993). The concept of experience played central theoretical roles in the works of educators and psychologists such as John Dewey, Jean Piaget, and Jerome Bruner (Hopkins & Putnam, 1993). The Project Adventure model is based loosely on the principles of Outward Bound. The project's approach to physical education has been used within some school systems since 1971 (Paling, 1984). Recently, social workers appear to have become increasingly involved in the utilization of adventure-based activities that are merged with counseling principles and services (Gillis, 1992; Alvarez & Welsh, 1990; Marx, 1988; Schoel, Prouty, & Radcliffe, 1988).

Adventure education, adventure-based programming, adventure-based experiential learning and other similar terms describe a wide variety of approaches that appear to encourage and facilitate the development of specific life skills for children in innovative and engaging ways. Many programs train participants in specific skills related to climbing or orienteering. These activities appear to be particularly appealing to adolescents. For this review, only programs that use counseling as a primary component within the school or mental health setting are examined--primarily those categorized as stress/adventure experiences based on the Outward Bound modified model (Lingle, 1980).

Many areas mentioned as necessary components for successful life-skills programs appear to be inherent to adventure-based learning and counseling approaches. In particular, communication skills, cooperation, decision-making, and problem-solving encompass the majority of group activities. The Adventure-Based Counseling model (Schoel, Prouty, & Radcliffe, 1988) outlines additional life-skills areas addressed. These include goal setting and monitoring as well as specific group behavioral rules which encourage utilization of personal choices, respect for the rights of other group members, confrontation of members who do not follow rules of behavior and safety, and assuming responsibility for the safety of others.

Adventure-based activities and programs operate from the model of experiential learning. Kolb's model is a cyclical process that is divided into concrete experience, reflective observation, and active experimentation. Alvarez and Welsh (1990) defined experiential education as "a structured sequence of cooperative group activities whose goal is to improve members' interpersonal skills, capacity to trust, and self-esteem." Similarly, Project Adventure, Inc. defines its learning goals as follows: increase participants' sense of self-confidence, increase mutual support within a group, develop a higher level of agility and physical coordination, increase pleasure in one's physical self and in being with others, and increase familiarity and identification with the natural world (Rohnke, 1989).

Prevention/intervention models conceptualized on the experiential learning model have been utilized in various contexts (Kiyuna, Kopriva, & Farr, 1993; Schoel, Prouty, & Radcliffe, 1988; Alvarez & Welsh, 1990). Adventure-based models have been applied in schools (including alternative settings), hospitals and treatment facilities, and in programs for court-referred youth (Schoel, Prouty, & Radcliffe, 1988). Specifically, Project Choices is an adventure-based counseling program for adolescents with chemical dependency problems (Gillis, 1991), and CHAMPS is an interdisciplinary, adventure-based counseling program located at an adolescent, inpatient psychiatric unit (Murray, 1991). It is also being used in conjunction with family therapy (Gersteien, 1992), adjudicated adolescents, and incarcerated adults (Gillis & McLeod, 1992), and with corporate employees (Wagner & Fahey, 1992).

Specific Activities and Principles

Adventure activities utilized in the context of adventure counseling groups are categorized as icebreakers, deinhibitizers, trust/spotting, initiative problems, and high and low ropes course elements (Rohnke, 1989). Many books describe appropriate adventure activities for age groups ranging from elementary school students to adults (Rohnke, 1984, 1989; Orlick, 1982; Farrington & Fluegelman, 1976). Further, many groups utilize the principles of the full value contract and challenge by choice (Rohnke, 1989; pp. 15-19) as an inherent part of the group process.

The full value contract is an agreement among group members to work together as a team to achieve their goals, to follow safety and behavior guidelines, and to both give and receive positive and negative feedback while in the group setting (Schoel, Prouty, & Radcliffe, 1988; pp. 94-95). Challenge by choice represents a group philosophy that allows participants to challenge themselves only if they choose to do so. School, Prouty, and Radcliffe (1988) maintain that this allows the participants to try "potentially difficult and/or frightening" activities in a supportive atmosphere, the "opportunity to `back off' when performance pressures or self-doubt become too strong ... "a realization that the attempt is more important than the performance, and "respect for individual ideas and choices" (p. 131).

Ropes course experience(s) often appear to be integral to adventure-based programs. The ropes course has been described by Fischesser (1991) both as "a personal growth tool" and as "a variety of high and low activities that can be used for a wide range of educational and therapeutic objectives with all sorts of populations." The ropes course is generally comprised of high elements, low elements and initiatives (Rohnke, 1989). It has been traced back to 1962 when it was brought to the U.S. as part of Outward Bound. Reportedly, it was initially used as a group assessment device by instructors before leaving on extended group expeditions (Fischesser, 1991).

The high elements are belayed activities (requiring ropes, safety harnesses, and other equipment) in which there is a high level of perceived risk. The focus appears to be primarily on accomplishing individual goals and confronting fears. High ropes participation typically makes up a relatively small portion (15-20%) of program activities (Rohnke, 1989).

Low ropes elements also focus on individual goals and require other group members to utilize appropriate spotting techniques for safety (Rohnke, 1989). Emphasis is on group trust and in assuming responsibility for someone else.

Initiatives are group problem-solving activities that require participation of all members to complete an assigned task (Webster, 1989, p. 32). Some initiatives require the utilization of the low ropes course. Activities of this nature typically appear to be difficult and require a high degree of cooperation to complete. Additionally, some groups may not complete the initiative "successfully," and this can be processed as a group issue. Many programs utilize specific processing techniques to facilitate generalization of the experience on the ropes course to other significant life areas (Blanchard, 1992; Schoel, Prouty, & Radcliffe, 1988).

Theoretical Issues and Adventure

Various authors in the field of adventure programming offer several theoretical perspectives that represent the basis for this interventive method. These include cognitive, behavioral, and affective perspectives (Schoel, Prouty, & Radcliffe, 1988) and their relation to adventure-based programs.

The cognitive perspective maintains that "thinking shapes behavior" (Werner, 1982). It is also theorized that emotions are strongly linked to cognitions, and therefore it is possible to change a person's emotions by changing dysfunctional cognitions (Sherman, 1987). Blanchard (1992) connects cognitive theory to adventure counseling in that the goal of certain adventure activities is to "change automatic thoughts of I can't to I can." Schoel, Prouty, and Radcliffe (1988) relate this to the ABC model in that during adventure-based initiative activities, the model provides the structure for group problem-solving. Blanchard (1992) discusses the similarity of Rational-Emotive Therapy (RET) with adventure-based approaches. He points out such issues of confronting fears, taking risks, surpassing previous limits and accepting personal responsibility as examples of the similarity in approach. The appropriateness of group approaches with adolescents is also highlighted (Blanchard, 1992).

The behavioral perspective maintains that behavior is made up of different response systems and that these may include affective, cognitive, or overt behaviors (Gambrill, 1987). Behavioral theory has its theoretical roots in the works of many authors including Thomas (1967) and Bandura (1969, 1977). Sachs and Miller (1992) discuss adventure programs in terms of Bandura's Self-Efficacy Theory (SET). They state that "the foundation of SET is inherent in the various wilderness programs."

The behavioral perspective maintains that empirical research should be utilized to guide practice decisions, and that specific, observable behaviors in "real-life" settings remain a treatment focus (Gambrill, 1987). Schoel, Prouty, and Radcliffe (1988) view the adventure group as an arena where behavior reinforcement is available in many forms (e.g., peer pressure and point systems) and view the group process as the change agent (p. 25). Many adventure programs stress the need for the development of specific, behavioral goals as an inherent part of the adventure process (Alvarez & Welsh, 1990; Schoel, Prouty, & Radcliffe, 1988).

The affective theoretical perspective and its connection to adventure-based activities is also worth noting. Blanchard (1992) discusses experiential therapy and its theoretical association with Gestalt therapy. Shertzer and Stone (1980) discuss Gestalt therapy based on the work of Perls (1971). They note that Gestalt theory posits that the organism cannot be separated from the environment, and that behavior does not consist of several responses to several stimuli. The emphasis is on "wholes." Gestaltists view behavior as a "whole response to a whole behavior" (Shertzer & Stone, 1980). Blanchard (1992) states that adventure counseling and Gestalt theory both emphasize a "here-and-now" orientation. He also finds similarity in that both adventure counseling and Gestalt therapy often occur in groups, and require a high degree of therapist improvisation (Blanchard, 1992).

The literature appears to suggest that the adventure-based approach may be conceptualized within many theoretical perspectives. Several comparisons of different theories to the adventure-based approach were presented to highlight the apparent flexibility of the model.

Adventure and Self-esteem: A Major Concept

The overall goal of adventure-based activities and programming appears to be the enhancement of participants' self-esteem or self-concept (Schoel, Prouty, & Radcliffe, 1988; Hopkins & Putnam, 1993). According to Butler (1993), adventure programming activities and experiences include excitement, risk taking, cooperation and competition, trust, communication, physical, mental, and emotional challenges, physical activity, problem-solving and creativity, group and individual skill development, and fun. The ABC model addresses the improvement of self-concept through structured activities that stress trust building, goal setting, challenge/stress, peak experiences, humor, and problem-solving (Schoel, Prouty, & Radcliffe, 1988). Battle (1982) stated that the factors involved in the definition of self-esteem: "a subjective, evaluative phenomenon which determines the individual's characteristic perception of personal worth." Byrne (1974) defined self-concept as "the total collection of attitudes, judgments, and values which an individual holds with respect to his behavior, his abilities, his body, his worth as a person; in short, how he perceives and evaluates himself." Steffenhagen and Burns (1987) defined self-esteem as "the totality of the individual's perception of self," and included self-concept, self-image, and social concept as the composite parts of this perception.

The literature reveals a correlation between self-esteem and various adolescent issues. These include academic achievement (Ribich & Barone, 1989; Battle, 1979), depression (Wylie, 1979); delinquency (Bynner, O'Malley, & Bachman, 1981; Kaplan, 1975), and decision-making ability (Brown & Mann, 19991). Faust (1980) reported that students with reduced self-esteem were more likely to feel unsafe, and that this in turn could lead to anxiety and fear. The enhancement of self-esteem is a commonly utilized approach in many prevention programs and is considered to be above average in terms of costs and benefits (Minnesota State Dept. of Education, 1992).

Although the literature often supports self-esteem building as a preventive or intervention method in education, Joseph (1992) points out that there is substantial disagreement as to whether a relationship between self-esteem and academic performance exists. Several researchers have presented findings that seem contrary to previous beliefs. Data concerning African-American children and the relationship of self-esteem to academic performance highlights this issue. Various studies have challenged this relationship (Mboya, 1986; Lay & Wakstein, 1985; Simmons, Brown, Bush, & Blyth, 1978). Similarly, McCarthy and Hoge (1984) suggest that "researchers look elsewhere than self-esteem for a fuller understanding of delinquency." Considering this discrepancy, efforts to clarify the definition of self-esteem and its relationship to the issues of various minority group adolescents appear to be indicated.

Empirical Review

In reviewing the literature on empirical evaluations of adventure-based counseling programs, it becomes immediately apparent that there have been few comprehensive, empirical studies of this treatment approach. Although adventure-based programs were infused into the educational setting through the creation of Project Adventure, Inc. in 1971, the Adventure-based counseling model (Schoel, Prouty, & Radcliffe, 1988) is a relatively new approach to working with at-risk youth. Table 1 shows selected empirical evaluations of adventure-based programs.

Author(s) Year Population type Dependent
 (n=) Variable(s)

Nyhus 1993 Undergrad college Physical & Task-
 students (n=40) Specific Self-
 Efficacy

Sale 1192 Delinquent Ego & Self-
 adolescents (n=30) Concept Dvlpmnt

Witman 1992 Adolescent Skill
 Psychiatric Patients Generalization
 (n=42)

Sachs & Miller 1992 Behaviorally Social interaction
 Disordered & Expectation
 Adolescents (n=8
 exp., 8 control)

Freed 1991 Emotionally Behavior Change
 impaired
 intermediate school
 students (n=29-35)

Rudolph 1991 Families Family
 participating in Perceptions
 intervention/
 enrichment
 program (n=13
 respondents)

Sturdivant 1990 Freshman college Self-Concept,
 students (n=?) Affective Behavior

Hazel-worth & 1990 Coed Adolescents Self-Concept
Wilson (n=39 subjects,
 ages 12-15)

Taylor 1989 College students Personality Type,
 (n=21) Self-esteem,
 Locus of Control

Zwart 1988 Delinquent Self-Concept,
 adolescent males Locus of Control
 (n=43)

Wisnyai 1988 High School Risk-taking
 students attitudes

Davidson 1987 Underachieving Self-Concept
 high school Locus of Control,
 students (n=10) Inter-personal
 Awareness

Luckner 1985 Hearing Impaired Self-Esteem,
 College students Locus of Control
 (n=10)

Lieberman & 1991 Elementary & Self-Concept
DeVos Secondary school
 students (n=54
 exp, 58 control)

Danziger 1982 Elementary School Self-Concept
 students (n=?

Quimby 1982 Secondary School Affective &
 students Psycho-motor
 Outcomes

Bertolami 1981 Young adults Self-Esteem,
 Locus of Control

Van Hove 1980 Private School Ability to develop
 students (age=?, Trust, ability to
 n=?) take risks

Conrad 1980 Secondary School Social, Psych. &
 students (n=600 Intellectual
 students from 9 Change
 schools in U S.)

Author(s) Instrument(s) Utilized Experimental Design

Nyhus Task-Specific Self-Efficacy Time Series (No
 Instrument, Physical Self- control group)
 Efficacy Instrument, Task
 Completion Instrument

Sale Washington Sentence One Group Pretest-
 Completion Test, Piers- Posttest (No
 Harris Self-Concept Scale control group)

Witman Interview, Questionnaire One Group Pretest-
 Posttest (No
 control group)

Sachs & Miller Behavior Problem Pretest-Posttest
 Checklist, Modified Jessor Control Group
 Expectancy Quenstionnaire,
 Direct Observation

Freed Behavior Evaluation Scale One Group Pretest-
 (BES) Posttest (No
 control group)

Rudolph Document data, interview One Shot case Study
 data (No control group)

Sturdivant Tennessee Self-Concept Pretest-Posttest
 Scale, Platt Affective Control Group
 Behavior

Hazel-worth & Tennessee Self-Concept One Group Pretest-
Wilson Scale Posttest (No
 control group)

Taylor Rotter Internal-External One Group Pretest-
 Locus of Control Scale, Posttest (No
 Rosenberg Self-Esteem control group)
 Scale, Myers-Briggs Type
 Indicator

Zwart Self Report Inventories, One Group
 Behavioral Observations Pretest
 Posttest (No
 control group)

Wisnyai Jackson Personality Pretest-Posttest
 Inventory Risk Taking Control Group
 Subscale

Davidson Tennessee Self-Concept Pretest-Posttest
 Scale, Selman Inter- Control Group
 personal Awareness, and
 Locus of Control Scale.

Luckner Culture Free Self-Esteem Pretest-Posttest
 Inventory, Semantic Control Group
 Differential Self-Concept ((*) matched
 Scale, Levenson Locus of control group, may
 Control Scale indicate flawed
 design)

Lieberman & Tennesse Self Concept Nonequivalent
DeVos Scale, Piers-Harris Control Group
 Children's Self-Concept
 Scale, Student Attitude
 Inventory

Danziger Piers-Harris Self-Concept Solomon Four Group
 Scale. Trained Observers

Quimby Tennessee Self-Concept Pretest-Posttest
 Scale, Platt Affective Control Group
 Behavior Scales, American
 Alliance of Health, Phy. Ed.,
 Recreation & Dance
 Related Fitness Test.

Bertolami Unspecified "Quasi-Experimental"
 Experimental"
 Control Group

Van Hove Badger's Outdoor One Group Pretest
 Adventure Education Posttest (No
 Situation Reaction Model control group)

Conrad Unspecified Pretest-Posttest
 Control Group

Author(s) Findings

Nyhus Participants scores on physical and task
 specific measures were significantly
 higher at end of program, relationship
 between task specific self-efficacy &
 completion of adventure tasks.

Sale Significant gains in ego development and
 self concept.

Witman Concluded that "the hypothesis that
 aspects of the adventure experience
 transfer or generalize to other life areas
 was clearly supported."

Sachs & Miller Concluded that the experience had "a
 significant short term impact on the
 cooperative behavior exhibited by the
 students in that school setting."

Freed Significant impact on participant scores on
 Interpersonal Difficulties subscale of BES.
 Not adequate evidence that program had
 long term impact.

Rudolph Program participation had positive impact
 on families, perceptions shifted regarding
 member capabilities and family resources.

Sturdivant Hypothesis regarding gains in self-concept
 and affective areas was not supported.

Hazel-worth & Significant increases in moral ethical self-
Wilson concept, identity and self-satisfaction.

Taylor Pretest-posttest scores not significant for
 self esteem, locus of control. Self report
 data indicated positive effects on self-
 esteem & locus of control.

Zwart Hypothesis of increased self-concept,
 locus of control not supported. Instructors
 reported increased use of socially
 appropriate behaviors.

Wisnyai Concluded that Adventure program had a
 significant impact on risk taking attitudes
 of participants.

Davidson Significant results reported (p<.05) for all
 instruments. No difference between
 groups in attendance, comportment

Luckner Significant gains in self-concept, locus of
 control, both which were maintained at 2
 month follow up.

Lieberman & Experimental group gained in several self-concept
DeVos areas, no difference in groups at
 follow up.

Danziger For some subjects, the program activities
 "were instrumental in enhancing the self
 concept," also experimental S's utilized a
 "broader range of interactive behaviors."

Quimby Significant affective gains for program
 participants on both measures, no
 difference in fitness test results.

Bertolami Significant gains in self-esteem for
 experimental group.

Van Hove Significant positive change noted in many
 subscale scores, conclusion that program
 caused "positive social characteristic
 changes."

Conrad Concluded that "in general, experiential
 programs did have a positive impact on
 psychological, social & intellectual
 growth." Significant results reported in
 many interpersonal areas.

The studies listed were located through a review of Social Work Abstracts, Psychological Abstracts, Dissertation Abstracts, and ERIC using combinations of the search words experiential, adventure, counseling, education, and evaluation. Several empirical studies were located, with the majority (11 of 19)examining the relationship between adventure-based programming and self-esteem/self-concept. Although the model of adventure-based counseling has been the focus of this paper, other empirical studies have examined the effect of adventure-based programming on self-esteem and other variables. It is unclear as to whether a counseling component was involved in these programs, or if the completion and experience of various adventure activities (without counseling) was the primary focus. Nonetheless, these studies appear to be valuable when reviewing empirical efforts in the field. For the purposes of the present review, only the studies dated from 1980 are presented in the table.

In examining studies conducted to demonstrate program effectiveness, several issues emerge which make it difficult to draw conclusions with regard to the adventure-based approach. The first is that no two adventure programs appear to be the same in their manner of implementation. Some programs are based on intensive outdoor experiences over a relatively short period of time (Bertolami, 1980; Hazelworth & Wilson, 1990; Sachs & Miller, 1992; Witman, 1992; Luckner, Zwart, 1988). Other programs were conducted in a less intensive manner and over a longer period of time (Quimby, 1982; Taylor, 1989; Lieberman & DeVos, 1983). Two were specifically identified as adventure-based counseling programs (Lieberman & DeVos, 1983; Davidson, 1987). Some programs were administered in schools, agencies and/or treatment facilities (Lieberman & DeVos, 1983; Danziger, 1982; Quimby, 1982), while others utilized locations in wilderness, camp, or ropes course sites (Sachs, & Miller, 1992; Berrtolami, 1981; Freed, 1991; Zwart, 1988; Wisnyai, 1988; Luckner, 1985). Widely varying settings, time of participation in the program, and leader orientations make it difficult to comment definitively on an adventure-based approach or program since this approach has not been specifically defined for these variables.

In examining program leadership or curriculum materials, there also appear to be widely varying or flexible formats for program implementation. It is often unclear who or how many persons are involved in leading an adventure program (i.e., counselors, educators, para-professsionals), their qualifications or training, and if they are experienced in group dynamics. Similarly, the techniques or specific activities utilized with the various populations served during the course of their program are rarely mentioned. This make comparisons of programs extremely difficult.

In examining the research designs of the various studies, several other concerns emerge with regard to the research methods. Nine of the 19 studies did not appear to utilize a control group as part of their design (Nyhus, 1993; Sale, 1992; Freed, 1991; Rudolph, 1991; Hazelworth & Wilson, 1990; Witman, 1992; Taylor, 1989; Zwart, 1988; Van Hove, 1980). Additionally, three studies may have utilized nonequivalent control groups (Liberman & DeVos, 1983; Bertolami, 1981; Luckner, 1985). Thus, 12 of the 19 studies have research design problems which make it difficult for them to contribute empirical support for adventure-based programming.

As the table shows, various measurement instruments were utilized. The most common was the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale used in five of the 19 studies. Various other measures of self-concept, locus of control, affective behavior, and other physical and psychological outcomes were utilized, with most utilizing self-report as the primary method of data collection. This raises the question of whether participants (particularly adolescents) will accurately report on issues which would indicate low self-concept. Only three of the 19 studies utilized direct behavioral observations for data collection (Sachs & Miller, 1992; Zwart, 1988; Danziger, 1982).

Of the seven studies which report the utilization of an experimentally sound research design (pretest-posttest control group; Solomon Four group), additional difficulties emerge. In four of the seven studies, it is unclear as to the sample sizes (Danziger, 1982; Wisnyai, 1988; Sturdivant, 1990; Quimby, 1982). In two of the studies, the sample sizes were 20 or less participants (Davidson, 1987; Sachs & Miller, 1992).

These adventure-based programs generally report positive results. Sixteen of the 19 studies noted in the table reported some degree of positive outcome for the participants. This included claims that they evidenced increased self-esteem/self-concept (Sale, 1992; Hazelworth & Wilson, 1990; Taylor, 1989; Davidson, 1987; Luckner, 1985; Lieberman & DeVos, 1983; Danziger, 1982; Quimby, 1982; Bertolami, 1981), higher scores on physical and task-specific measures (Nyhus, 1993), increased use of cooperative behaviors (Sachs & Miller, 1992), generalization of adventure skills to other life areas (Witman, 1992), positive gains on psychological, social and intellectual growth (Conrad, 1980).

Michigan, both of which focused on serving at-risk adolescents. Alvarez concluded that "... adventure as a model of experiential education offers, the school social worker an alternative approach." He highlighted the model's emphasis on client strengths rather than lack of abilities, positing that the program assisted the participants in making decisions and developing competence.

Implications for Research and Practice

Although results appear to vary, and research design and method deficits have been noted, the majority of studies indicate that participation in an adventure-based program impacted positively on participants' self-esteem/self-concept. Based on the available research, it is unclear whether this occurred as a result of participation in an adventure-based program. Well-designed research would appear to benefit practitioners who are planning to or are currently utilizing an adventure-based counseling program with their clients.

It appears that several areas would need to be addressed to begin the development of a solid empirical base for these programs. One area has to do with research design. In order for the approach to be thoroughly tested, designs utilizing random treatment and control groups, adequate sample sizes, and behavioral outcome measures would be necessary.

Additionally, the setting in which the behavior observations occurred would be important. That is, although participants may utilize certain behaviors in the adventure-based counseling setting while engaging in structured activities, what, if any behavior change would occur in a target setting (i.e., classroom, hallways, or home)? Researchers would do well to gather data from such records as attendance and disciplinary reports. This would help determined if the skills learned in the program were being generalized to other contexts.

Another research issue would address the types and sequencing of activities in the program. While many publications are dedicated to suggesting adventure activities and their sequences (Rohnke, 1989; Schoel, Prouty, & Radcliffe, 1988), this may result in too much flexibility for adequate comparison of effectiveness across programs. What may be needed in order to conduct and compare these programs is one specific sequence of activities, initiatives, and skill-building exercises that could be applied across programs. It may then be possible to examine several programs which utilized the same activities in order to draw conclusions about the effect of the program.

Without ignoring the apparent research deficits in the field, it is worth noting that this review did not discover any studies which found that participation in adventure programming was harmful to the participants' health or well-being. The same claim cannot be made for traditional psychotherapeutic services, some of which had demonstrable negative effects (Wodarski & Bagarozzi, 1979; Fischer, 1973). Gillis (1994) discussed evaluation of adventure-based programs and reported that there is currently an article (Cason & Gillis, in press) "which combines 44 research studies to show that adolescents benefit from adventure programming more than those who don't."

Others in the field also acknowledge the deficits in previous studies and identify areas for future research (Stale, 1979; Gillis, 1994). Ewert (1983) concluded that with regard to Outward Bound having a "good" effect on participants, the process was similar to electricity in that "... we know it does something good, but we're not sure how it does it" (cited in Riggins, 1986). Riggins (1986) further suggested that future research in adventure programming should build on what is already known about effective learning in the traditional classroom setting (i.e., the effects of group size, cooperative orientation, success, and underlying classroom culture). Gillis (1992) also highlights research difficulties in the field, including "lack of randomization, the use of nonequivalent control groups, in-house evaluations, and the lack of adequate follow-ups." He posits that these are, in part, responsible for inconsistent findings, such as changes in self-report measures but not behavior. Gillis (1992) suggests the possibility of creating specific treatment manuals to "provide protocols of psychotherapy" in adventure-based setting since this may allow for improved effectiveness across programs.

Practice issues for the utilization of adventure-based counseling programs should also be addressed Among these are the apparent similarities between adventure-based counseling programs and life-skills programs, particularly in the area of social competence training. The group counseling modality and its appropriateness for this type of skill building also bears underscoring.

This paper discussed life-skills programs in terms of various general program components and its rationale. Adventure-based counseling programs appear to address similar life-skills concepts and issues. It has been posited that adolescents benefit from social competence training as well as gain in self-esteem. There is empirical support for the supposition that adolescents have the ability to improve life skills in structured programs and formats (Wodarski & Wodarski, 1993; Wodarski, 1988; Schinke & Gilchrist, 1984). Adventure-based approaches appear to offer an attractive alternative to working with at-risk adolescents, given the nature of the activities and the emphasis on participant strengths, as well as the active participation with peers in order to acquire or enhance desired skills (i.e., decision-making, problem-solving, and trust). Gillis, Williams, and Hollis (1992) suggested that certain types of children do not respond well to traditional, talk-oriented interventions, and that experiential methods may prove more effective.

Adventure-based counseling programs use the group modality as the primary arena for change. It has several benefits; it is theoretically consistent with an adolescents' emphasis on group membership and socialization. The adventure component and particularly the ropes course activities allow participants to engage in appropriate risk-taking behaviors. Further, the group context more closely approximates social situations that may be encountered outside the program, and that skills learned in this context may then be generalized beyond the program setting. Similarly, the group modality may allow counselors and program leaders to reach larger numbers of children in a more cost-effective way.

CONCLUSION

This paper has reviewed the literature concerning adventure-based counseling approaches with at-risk students. These were compared to more traditional life-skills programs, particularly in the area of social competence. A glaring deficiency in the literature to date is the absence of empirical program evaluations focusing on observable behaviors of group participants. It would appear to be valuable for this type of research to be conducted prior to the allocation of large sums of money by school districts and mental health agencies to implement a full-scale model. Given the diminishing resources for social programs, empirically based social and life-skills programs may be a more cost effective. Additionally, as Gillis & McLeod (1992) suggest, if full-scale programming cannot be implemented due to cost, some activities can be used but without intensive rope courses or outdoor experiences.

For social workers who provide direct services to adolescents in various settings, adventure-based counseling may be a viable alternative to traditional approaches. Additionally, such programming often appears to offer social workers opportunities to engage in interdisciplinary relationships with other professionals.

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Preparation of this manuscript was facilitated by the Janet B. Wattles endowment, a subcontract from the Buffalo State College Center for the Development of Human Services and a grant from the office of the Vice President of Research.

Gerald T. Moote, Jr., CSW, Doctoral Student, State University of New York at Buffalo, School of Social Work, and School Socialworker, North Tonawanda City Schools.

Reprint requests to John S. Wodarski, Ph.D., State University of New York at Buffalo, School of Social Work, 359 Baldy Hall, Box 601050. Buffalo, N.Y. 14260-1050.