Expressed attitudes of adolescents toward marriage and family life.
Martin, Paige D. ; Specter, Gerald ; Martin, Don 等
Nontraditional behaviors with respect to sex, family, and gender
roles have become increasingly widespread and more socially accepted
(Barber & Axinn, 1998; Lye & Waldron, 1997; Werner-Wilson, 1998;
Wu & Baer, 1994). The traditional, "nuclear" family, which
has been described as a sexually exclusive unit with a division of labor
between husband and wife and a focus on children (Burguiere,
Kaplish-Zuber, Segalen, & Zonabend, 1994), has become more flexible
with changing societal trends. In the U.S., for example, stepfamilies
comprise nearly 17% of all two-parent families (Hetherington et al.,
1998), while 50-60% of children born in 1990 lived with a single parent
(Furstenberg, 1996; Hetherington et al., 1998; Tasker & Richards,
1994).
Marriage offers significant advantages to both adults and children.
Married people have higher incomes and more assets than singles
(Samuelson, 1996). Children of single-parent families are twice as
likely to drop out of school and three times as likely to live in
poverty when compared to children from two-parent families (Hetherington
et al., 1998). In addition, married couples have been found to be
happier and healthier (Horwitz & White, 1998; Phares & Lum,
1996). Nevertheless, marriage as an institution has become less valued,
and nonmarital arrangements, such as cohabitation, have become more
popular (Hetherington et al., 1998; Institute for American Values, 1995;
Tasker & Richards, 1994). Furthermore, there is less of a stigma
associated with the decision not to marry. The Institute for American
Values (1995) reported that 33% of adults are ambivalent regarding
whether or not it is better to marry than be single. The overall
proportion of unmarried persons has risen in the past thirty years and
the number of nonmarital cohabitants has also increased (Clydesdale,
1997; Edmondson, 1997; Kranczer, 1997). According to Edmondson (1997),
more than 4 in 10 women aged 15 through 44 have been in an unmarried
cohabitation partnership at some time in their lives.
Despite these trends, there is a consistent desire by Americans to
marry. Most divorced people express a desire to remarry and 81% still
believe marriage is a commitment for life (Clarksberg, Stolzenberg,
& Waite, 1995; Furstenberg, 1996; Popenoe, 1993). Forty percent of
all marriages in the United States now involve one spouse who has been
married at least once (Ten Kate, 1996), with the United States having
the highest remarriage rate in the world (Institute for American Values,
1995). Approximately 40% of married couple households are projected to
become remarried families before the youngest child turns 18
(Hetherington et al., 1998; Institute for American Values, 1995; Ten
Kate, 1996).
METHOD
The Marriage and Family Life Survey (Martin & Martin, 1981) was
chosen for the present study because of its ability to examine the many
different dimensions of relationships (sex, cohabitation, role of
religion, marriage status of parents, and proclivity to seek
professional help concerning relationships). This instrument includes
demographic questions pertaining to age, gender, ethnic background, year
in school, parental marriage status, and dating experience.
For the purpose of this investigation, approximately 200 students
out of a potential pool of 8,795 9th-12th graders were randomly selected
to receive the Marriage and Family Life Survey (Martin & Martin,
1981). One hundred forty-five responses were received, providing a
satisfactory level of statistical power (Erdfelder, Faul, & Buchner,
1996; Faul & Erdfelder, 1992).
Parents of the participants were sent a packet consisting of the
survey, consent forms, and parental and participant introductory letters
describing the purpose of the study, participants' confidentiality
rights, whom to contact to obtain further information about the
research, and method of returning completed surveys and consent forms.
The data were analyzed in several ways, incorporating frequencies,
percentages, means, medians, and standard deviations.
Sample
The sample consisted of urban, suburban, and rural adolescents
located in the Dallas--Forth Worth area of Texas. Their average age was
approximately sixteen years; 66.9% were female and 33.1% were male.
White non-Hispanics were the largest ethnic group represented in the
sample (48.0%), followed by African Americans (28.4%), Hispanics (7.4%),
American Indians/Alaskan Natives (4.1%), and other races (12.2%). The
largest subgroups were in the 9th (27.0%) and 12th grades (34.5%). The
largest contingent reported that they lived in homes with married (first
time) parents (44.6%), 12.2% reported that their parents were separated,
14.2% indicated that their parents were divorced, and 25.7% indicated
that their parents were remarried. In regard to dating experience, 43.2%
of the adolescents indicated they had dated one individual seriously in
the past year and 32.4% reported they had dated several individuals in
the past year. Only 12.2% reported they had not dated at all; the same
percentage reported that they dated frequently. In terms of expected age
at marriage, 6.1% indicated that they anticipate being married between
the ages of 17 and 22, 68.2% indicated that they anticipate being
married between the ages of 23 and 27, 16.9% indicated they anticipate
being married between the ages of 28 and 32, and 2.7% indicated they
preferred to be married after the age of 32. Only 6.1% indicated they
did not anticipate being married at all.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Based on the current literature, it was believed that the majority
of adolescents would express accepting attitudes toward marriage. The
findings from this study support this viewpoint. Approximately two
thirds of the adolescents (65.3%) expressed positive attitudes toward
marriage.
Despite these positive attitudes, the majority of adolescents
(57.4%) felt they were unprepared for marriage, while 20.9% felt they
were prepared, and 20.9% expressed no opinion. However, the majority
(67.7%) believed they had the skills necessary to make a good marriage.
These findings appear contradictory and may indicate confusion about
what would be expected of them, the skills needed, and their ability to
be successful regarding marriage. It could be surmised from these
results that adolescents overestimate their abilities and hold
misconceptions concerning marriage and family life. Furthermore, over
half of the respondents were from single-parent or blended families,
suggesting that they have observed extensive marital conflict at some
point in their lives. Because the research literature has shown that
marital conflict and disruption have an effect on the development of
intimate relationships in young people (Amato, 1996; Holman & Li,
1997; Rogers & Amato, 1997), it is possible that these adolescents
are not sufficiently prepared for successful marriage and family life.
Divorce
It has been estimated that half of all new marriages will end in
divorce and approximately one million children will experience parental
divorce each year (Hetheringten et al., 1998). This high rate of divorce
has increased the number of children being raised in single-parent
homes, which are often female-headed (McElroy, Williams, & Anderson,
1999). In this study, 51.1% of adolescents expressed negative attitudes
toward divorce, 27.1% expressed positive attitudes, and 22.0% had no
opinion.
When interpreting these results, it should be noted that the
majority of the adolescents came from single-parent or blended families.
Thus, divorce has been a significant event in the lives of these young
people. However, the effects of parental separation and divorce remain
unclear. Some research suggests that this trend may be affecting young
people's attitudes toward the institution of marriage. Although the
exposure of young people to divorce appears to contribute to feelings of
apprehension, these may have minimal effects regarding the decision to
marry and start a family (Johnston & Thomas, 1996; Johnson,
Wilkinson, & McNeil, 1995).
It would appear, based on the results of this investigation, that
adolescents desire to have successful marriages. For example, 82.5% of
the respondents endorsed the following statement: "Marriage is a
lifelong commitment." However, it could be speculated that it
becomes more difficult to learn the skills necessary for a stable,
long-term relationship when such a large number of adolescents from this
generation have been exposed to divorce and its consequences.
Premarital Sex
Premarital sexual activity has become more common among young
adults than in past generations, and it is an important aspect of
adolescent relationships (Feigenbaum, Weinstein, & Rosen, 1995;
McElroy et al., 1999). Haffner (1997) believes that societal attitudes
have changed, making premarital sex more acceptable and less
stigmatized. Although some researchers suggest adolescents are beginning
to make smarter choices in terms of premarital sex, the bulk of the
literature indicates that adolescents are continuing to engage in
high-risk sexual practices. In a study by Lye and Waldron (1997), 38% of
15- to 19-year-old males and 41% of 15- to 19-year-old females reported
using an ineffective method or no method of contraception at first
intercourse. In addition, teenagers comprise one fifth of the
nation's cases of sexually transmitted diseases (Barber &
Axinn, 1998). One out of every six sexually active teens becomes
infected with a sexually transmitted disease every year. While it
appears that the majority of young adults are not engaging in high-risk
sexual practices with a number of partners concurrently, they continue
to engage in these behaviors with a single committed partner
(Werner-Wilson, 1998; Wu & Baer, 1994). Further, they may be in a
series of mutually monogamous relationships, each lasting only a short
period of time. This pattern increases the likelihood that adolescents
will have sexual relationships with a number of partners (Leigh,
Morrison, Trocki, & Temple, 1994; McElroy et al., 1999), in turn
increasing the probability of exposure to sexually transmitted diseases
(Haffner, 1997).
Based on the above research, the majority of respondents would be
expected to express positive attitudes toward premarital sexual
behaviors. Interestingly, it was found that only 36.1% of the
adolescents held positive attitudes regarding premarital sex, while
37.3% expressed negative attitudes and 26.6% expressed no opinion about
premarital sex. However, 51.4% indicated they had engaged in sexual
intercourse. It appears that adolescents may not always act in accord
with their expressed attitudes.
Typically, adolescents engage in sexual behaviors within a
committed relationship with someone they love (McElroy et al., 1999;
Salts, Seismore, Lindholm & Smith, 1994). The majority of
adolescents in our study (65.5%) indicated that it was not acceptable to
have sexual intercourse without loving one's partner. Despite the
growing evidence in the literature that adolescents are committing to
long-term relationships with one partner (Leigh et al., 1994), results
from the present study show otherwise. Although a large portion of
respondents indicated they had dated one individual seriously in the
last year, 32.4% had dated several individuals in the past year. While
many of these adolescents appear to be engaging in premarital sex within
the boundaries of a committed relationship, the reality may be that the
relationship is not long-term.
Cohabitation
Cohabitation before marriage or as an alternative to marriage has
increased dramatically in the past thirty years. Adolescents appear to
view cohabitation as a means of increasing the chances of a successful
marriage; however, these beliefs conflict with evidence suggesting that
cohabitation has negative effects on the longevity and success of a
future marriage. In our study, 50.4% of the adolescents expressed
positive attitudes toward cohabitation, 27.0% had negative attitudes
toward this practice, and 22.6% expressed no opinion.
Despite the consensus in the research, which suggests that people
who cohabitate prior to marriage have less marital success than those
couples who do not, 48.7% of the adolescents indicated they would want
to live with someone before they got married. Family disruption has made
it more difficult for today's youth to observe successful,
long-term relationships, and these adolescents seem to be searching for
ways to acquire the necessary skills for marriage. However, this
generation may be repeating the same mistakes they are trying to avoid
(Horwitz & White, 1998; Lye & Waldron, 1997).
Premarital Counseling and Psychoeducational Interventions
Although most people express positive attitudes regarding their
preparation for marriage, few are genuinely prepared for this complex
social institution. Extensive research has identified factors having an
effect on the success of marriage, such as role expectations,
communication skills, and personality (Schumm, Resnick, Silliman, &
Bell, 1998). Research has also indicated that preventive approaches may
be helpful in limiting marital distress and building successful
marriages (Lesage-Higgins, 1999). However, little research has addressed
the need for more education and preparation, especially for adolescents
and young adults.
There is increasing evidence which suggests that young people enter
into marriage too quickly and are ill-prepared to make the adjustments
necessary to assure stable, harmonious relationships (Diagrazia, 1998;
Schumm et al., 1998). The findings from the present study are
encouraging in that there appears to be a growing realization of the
need for greater preparation regarding marriage and parenthood. Only
28.9% of the adolescents expressed negative attitudes toward premarital
counseling and psychoeducational interventions. In addition,
approximately 41.2% agreed that counseling is not only for those couples
that are in trouble, and 47.3% believed they needed more education
regarding what to expect from marriage.
Implications for Counseling
A number of programs have been developed to help adolescents
prepare for marriage and family life, but their use is not widespread.
The present study indicates that providing adolescents with the
information they need to make informed choices (e.g., in high school sex
education classes) may be useful in helping them identify their
attitudes and how these attitudes may influence marriage and family
life. Helping adolescents understand the discrepancies between their
attitudes and their behaviors would also be beneficial.
Much of the current research focuses on the aftermath of failed
marriages, often emphasizing the negative impact on society. It is
suggested that mental health professionals and educators take a more
proactive role in educating young adults about marriage and family life.
For example, premarital workshops and psychoeducational interventions
could be conducted in schools, churches, hospitals, and youth centers.
The results of this study show that many adolescents desire
committed, long-term relationships. It is thus important for
psychologists, counselors, and therapists to talk to adolescents about
their attitudes toward marriage and family life and how these attitudes
often conflict with societal trends. Educating adolescents about the
skills necessary to build and maintain loving, long-lasting
relationships is also important.
Finally, premarital sex is frequently an important aspect of
teenage intimate relationships. However, it is clear that adolescents
are often unprepared for the possible ramifications. Therefore, it
appears appropriate to develop programs to help adolescents meet their
intimacy needs appropriately and safely.
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Paige D. Martin, Director of School Psychology Services, Rootstown
Independent Schools, Rootstown, Ohio.
Gerald Specter, Associate Professor of Psychology, Miami Institute
of Psychology, Miami, Florida.
Maggie Martin, Clinical Psychologist, PsyCare, Inc., Youngstown,
Ohio.
Requests for reprints should be sent to Don Martin, Department of
Counseling, Youngstown State University, One University Plaza,
Youngstown, Ohio 44555. E-mail:
[email protected]