If I could only say it myself: how to communicate with children of incarcerated parents.

Thombre, Avinash ; Montague, David R. ; Maher, Jennifer 等

If I Could Only Say It Myself:

How to Communicate with Children of Incarcerated Parents Introduction and Problem

The issue of increase in crime and the ways to handle it appropriately by the criminal justice system remains at the center of public discourse. Interestingly, as average citizens and professionals ponder on how to appropriately address reducing crime, influential political figures question any attempt to educate youth as a means of deterrence. The debate puts in question the merit of simple catch phrases directed toward youth such as "Just say no to drugs," with many ascribing such educational attempts as silly or, conversely, useful. The present research addresses areas of appropriately communicating with youth and children of incarcerated parents about the criminal justice system with the intention to reduce possible future incarceration.

In 1999 state and federal prisons held an estimated 721,500 parents of minor children, of which incarcerated parents had approximately 1,498,800 children (Mumola, 2002). Of the nation's 72 million minor children, 2.1% had a parent in state or federal prison in 1999. While attempts to reduce crime were introduced, the number of persons incarcerated increased by more than 490,000 inmates by 2000 and a large proportion of them were parents (Mumola, 2002). The number of American families affected by incarceration has yet to recede, and the current rates of incarceration do not indicate an imminent recession.

Between 1990 and 1996, the imprisonment among females has grown faster than that of males, twice the rate as men specifically for felony convictions (Greenfeld & Snell, 1999). Children with an incarcerated mother have nearly doubled since 1991, while the number of children with an incarcerated father increased 58% during this period. By 1999, state and federal prisons held an estimated 667,900 fathers and 53,600 mothers of minor children (Mumola, 2002). In 1999, an estimated 1,342,900 prisoners in state prison had children under the age of 18 and 173,900 in federal prison had children under the age of 18 (Mumola, 2000). From 1986 to 1991, the female state prison population witnessed a sharp increase of 75 percent compared to the male population of 53 percent (Snell, 1991). Increased incarceration of women is the outcome of government policies that prescribe simplistic punitive enforcement responses for complex social problems, federal and state mandatory sentencing laws, and the public's fear of crime (Covington, 2002).

Women, some say by tradition, are the primary caretakers of children (Young & Smith, 2000). A father might be an important figure in a child's life, but the absence of a father is not as damaging as the absence of a mother (Greene, Haney & Hurtado, 2000). Mumola (2002) found that 90 percent of incarcerated fathers in state prison claimed the mother was taking care of their children, while only 28 percent of incarcerated mothers in state prisons claimed the father was taking care of their children. He found that more than half of the mothers claimed that the grandparents were taking care of their children.

No matter which parent goes to prison, the family structure is heavily disrupted by the emotional turmoil, financial obligations, and living arrangements that have to be altered (Travis, Cincotta & Solomon, 2003). Incarceration is preceded by a period of familial instability, poverty, child abuse and neglect, martial discord and conflict (Parke & Clarke-Stewart, 2000). When the mother is incarcerated, a lack of emotional attention usually results for the child, while a sense of financial stability falters when the father is incarcerated. Both parents are primary role models for a child and if one or both are gone, a child can feel lost and unwanted resulting in anger and resentment. Intervention into these families is necessary to break the cyclic nature of incarceration patterns. Education of the criminal justice system provides children with the tools and means necessary to understand the working of the criminal justice system (police, courts and corrections) as a whole entity.

Children of Incarcerated Parents

When parents are incarcerated, their children are affected the most. Their lives are interrupted several times during the incarceration, particularly when the parent is taken away and when the parent returns (Gabel & Johnston, 1995). These children are traumatized by sudden separation when their parent is abruptly taken away (Simmons, 2000). When parents are in and out of prison, the results are disturbances in a child's life. In 1997, about 49 percent of the parents were under some kind of supervision from the state, i.e. after arrest, and 27 percent from federal of their current arrest (Mumola, 2002). Seventy-seven percent of the parents in state prison had prior criminal histories and 62 percent of parents in federal prison had prior criminal histories at the time of their current arrest. Ongoing separation from the mother can have major impacts on the child.

The disruption can cause confusion and emotional damage if not handled properly. According to the Women's Prison Association (1995), children will experience:

 ... low self-esteem, impaired achievement motivation, and poor peer
 relations. In addition, these children contend with feelings like
 anxiety, shame, sadness, grief, social isolation and guilt. The
 children will often withdraw and regress developmentally, exhibiting
 behaviors of young children, like bed wetting ... As the children
 reach adolescence, they may begin to act out in anti-social ways.
 Searching for attention, pre-teens and teens are at high risk for
 delinquency, drug addiction and gang involvement. (p. 9).

Many of these children face dramatic emotional imbalance as a result of lack of parent communication and usually have no one else to whom they can turn. This may cause them to participate in criminal behavior as a way of coping with the situation.

These children feel helpless and experience a sense of losing control of their surroundings, taking away what little hope that they might have (Young & Smith, 2000). Helplessness arises as they want to ask questions and know why their lives are being turned upside down. The feelings are aggravated as some parents and caregivers are too shamed to explain the cause of separation (Clark, 1995). Mazza (2002) explains that many children feel confused and abandoned and have no idea what happened to their parents. Although some children turn their confusion to anger and resentment towards their parents, others blame the criminal justice system and officers that took their parents away.

Providing children with reliable, dependable information allows them to begin to make sense of their situation and start the dual process of grieving the loss of their parent and coping with their new life circumstances (Parke & Clarke-Stewart, 2001). Some children may have to change their daily routines, activities and surroundings in order to adapt to the new circumstances. For example, older children assume unexpected role responsibilities, such as caring for younger children. Often children are diverted from school and into early jobs to reduce demands on, or supplement, household income.

Alternately, these youths are pushed toward criminal activity or early marriage and parenthood as means of escaping their disrupted family (Hagan, 1996). Key variables that determine how well a child will adapt to their new circumstances while a parent is in incarceration depends upon the amount of contact and communication between the parent and child and the amount of knowledge children have on why their parents are gone and education on how to cope with their feelings (Parke & Clarke-Stewart, 2001).

Visitation of Parents

Maintaining contact and communication between a parent and a child (during and after incarceration) is a significant factor in stabilizing the emotional imbalance, new environment, and the process of reunification (Bushfield, 2004). Maintaining and reestablishing communication and contact allow parents to celebrate special experiences together like birthdays, religious events, and family gatherings with their children (Hairston, 2001), but prisons are not designed to accommodate family needs and do not have appropriate arrangements for families (Young & Smith, 2000). Snell (1991) found that 46 percent of mothers communicated with their children on the telephone about once a week, 45 percent mailed letters once a week, and only nine percent got visits from their children once a week. In comparison, Mumola (2002) found 42 percent of the fathers talked at least once a month with their child, 50 percent wrote letters, and 21 percent got visitation.

Policies and procedures required before visiting with an inmate produce many barriers. Policy obstacles to the maintenance of parent-child relationships and communication include requiring children's custodial parents to escort them on visits, limiting children visitors to those for whom birth certificates listing the prisoners as the biological parent are produced, and placement of prisoners in locations far away from their homes (Hairston, 2001). There are restrictions to whom and how many visitors are allowed, and "lack of privacy, harsh treatment of visitors by correctional staff, and the physical layout of the visiting rooms" can become a burden (Parke & Clarke-Stewart, 2001 pg. 7). Body searches, inappropriate behavior, and over crowded visiting areas are also common occurrences when children visit their incarcerated parents (Hairston, 2001).

Additionally, emotional imbalance can also impact visitation. Houck and Loper (2002), described various inmates experienced emotional consequences based on visits because of anxiety from waiting for visits, concern about behavior and reactions by inmates, prison staff, children, and caretakers during visits, desire for longer visits, and discomfort of post-visit feelings. Some parents refrained from revealing their incarceration to their children because they were too ashamed to face their children or believed that it would be burdensome on the caretakers (Hairston, 2001).

Communication and Its Importance in Crime Prevention

One of the primary effects of incarceration on children is the decrease of communication between children and their parents. Parental incarceration could ultimately have many adverse effects including delinquency and, ultimately, criminality. Upon incarceration, the family structure is heavily disrupted, a phenomenon that could be conceptualized as a "broken home" (Rebellon, 2002). Broken homes can be defined in a variety of ways, from single parent households to families affected by incarceration, divorce, separation, and remarriage. Research has indicated that broken homes and lack of communication are robustly associated with a range of delinquent acts, from minor status offenses to severe property and/or violent offenses (Rebellon, 2002). The changes in family composition (incarceration, separation, divorce, remarriage) can cause an increased risk for future delinquency (Rebellon, 2002).

Parental bonding and delinquency can have an inverse relationship. "Lower levels of maternal and paternal bonding are associated to conflicts, whereas higher levels of maternal and paternal bonding are accompanied by higher supervision and tolerance. The association between parental bonding and involvement in deviant behaviors is identical in both sexes. What differentiates sexes is the link between orientation toward peers and diverse forms of deviancy, which is only present in adolescent boys" (Claes et al., 2004, p. 409). The role of parental functions, particularly parent-child communication, cannot be underestimated; it is a robust protective factor against deviancy in late adolescence.

Parental support increases confidence of adolescents, but cannot be addressed without simultaneously considering parental involvement. "Parental support, a crucial dimension of attachment, is related to peer relations. According to an attachment model, parental support contributes to the schema that the adolescent develops about relationships, and the schema provides a basis for interpretation and action in relationships. Adolescents who perceived their parents as supportive were more likely to have less delinquency, school, misconduct, drug, and alcohol abuse" (Parker & Benson, 2004, p. 527). This suggests a link between parental support and safe exploration of the social environment by the adolescent (Parker & Benson, 2004).

Communication between the parent and child and the amount of parental involvement can be used to predict deviant behaviors among children of incarcerated parents. Incarceration of a parent often leaves a child with low esteem, a sense of social neglect, and withdrawal from society (Women's Prison Association, 1995). These effects could result in acquiring delinquent peers who may be facing the same troubles. Involvement in underground activities such as drugs, gangs, and crime related behaviors are not uncommon results (Hagan, 1996). Associating with other children who may be facing the same alternations in life could establish a sense of belonging for children who have suffered a loss of a parent through incarceration (Women's Prison Association, 1995).

As a result of lack of parent-child communication, some children will not only engage in illegal activities but also look for an outlet to relieve their emotional stress. For many, this is accomplished by early marriage or parenthood, illustrating the same behavioral patterns as many of their mothers (Hagan, 1996). This is often seen as a spiraling effect and a continuation of learned behavior. The primary variables that determine if the child will adapt to the circumstances without turning to delinquency depend upon the conditions and environmental factors of the new caregivers and the amount of contact and communication the mothers have with their children (Parke & Clarke-Stewart, 2001).

Methods

Open-ended interviews and group interaction sessions were conducted with inmate respondents at two state prisons in Arkansas; the Varner facility and the McPherson facility. The two prison facilities are part of the Arkansas Department of Corrections and permission was obtained in advance. The Varner facility inmates were male and the McPherson facility inmates were female. The inmates represented a wide range of criminal convictions, including violent and property crimes.

Research Questions

The problems associated with communication of the criminal justice system coupled with a low level of education of Americans result in little understanding of the criminal justice system (Bellotti, 2005). The consequent lack of knowledge directly impacts the ability to exercise options if one is arrested and forced to make decisions impacting his/her freedom. The importance of communication to facilitate understanding of the criminal justice system has recompressions in terms of decreased crime and thus possible incarceration. In order to understand the situation the following exploratory research questions were framed.

R.Q.1: How do inmates ascribe meaning to their incarceration? The process of ascribing meaning to incarceration is the first step in understanding the possibilities to undertake prevention. Prison life is considered very harsh and the seclusion of people away from the larger citizen group is considered best for the society. The above question helps us to provide an outlet to the respondents to voice how they make sense of their day to day lives in the prison.

R.Q.2: According to inmates, what can empower youth towards avoiding crime and thus possible incarceration? The assumption is that youth generally do not have appropriate knowledge of the workings of the criminal justice system and are therefore ill-equipped to comprehend their chances of being caught and incarcerated. For example, previous research suggests that many high school and college students have no serious understanding of how their actions can impact their chances of incarceration (Murdo, 1997). Empowerment through education can come from parents who are incarcerated and do not want their children to be incarcerated for the same mistakes.

R. Q. 3: What specific concepts of the criminal justice system would the inmates want to appropriately communicate to their children in order to reduce or stop their possible incarceration? At present there is a consistent failure to communicate the three components of the criminal justice system and its complexities, the police, the courts, and corrections (Murdo, 1997). The Brenton Butler case exclaims that these failures are not mere anomalies. The question allows us to give voice to the spectrum of ideas about what material/curriculum are needed to properly approach and impact youth about the American criminal justice system.

Prison-Education Program

Respondents volunteered for a program to meet with people from outside the prison to gain knowledge to help their reintegration into society. The program involved groups of people not incarcerated visiting the prison and meeting with a small cadre of inmates committed to openly sharing their stories. The participating respondents candidly shared their experiences in order to make others aware of how their life stories, before arrest and during incarceration, could be a lesson to others. Access to the incarceration facilities was obtained in advance by notifying concerned authorities and reintegration officials. The research team underwent routine background checks before entering the prison.

Prison Meetings

The Varner Prison Unit Male Focus Group

The Arkansas Department of Correction has a program named "Community Reentry," which is the only rehabilitative program of that type (at present) within the Department of Correction. Community Entry is run, (via consent of the warden) by an Inmate Leadership Council comprised of less than 5 volunteer inmate members and empowered to work with a governing body (Board of Directors) of community and academic leaders from outside the Department of Correction. Inmates apply to be accepted into the program via the Council and the Board of Directors reviews all applications. Accepted applicants experience approximately 7 sessions with Board Members and others who visit the prison to complete interactive learning sessions on a varied curriculum (e.g. how to make good decisions, understanding the criminal justice system, and how to obtain housing once released from prison). The prison administration and the Council agreed to allow the research team to approach the inmates via this program to complete this research.

A group of 50 male inmate Reentry Program participants at the Varner Prison Unit were gathered in a common room in the presence of guards and were asked to describe their experiences in connection with the criminal justice system (e.g. arrest, dealings with counsel, and knowledge of the system prior to conviction). From these 50 initial inmates, 20 male inmates became the primary respondents for this study and provided the comments used for this research. The room had seats for all inmates in an audience-style format; the speakers who came to visit faced the inmates behind a microphone stand. The Council provided refreshments and ran the agenda of speakers. It was explained to the group that the aim of our research was to understand an incarcerated individual's life in order to come up with appropriate communication concepts of the criminal justice system to teach children of incarcerated parents. The group was informed that their participation would be voluntary and reminded that they could withdraw from participation at any time without any repercussions. The team's session with the inmates lasted an hour and half and no last names of any inmates were asked or documented by the research team to protect their confidentiality anonymity.

The McPherson Prison Unit Female Focus Group

The Arkansas Department of Correction has a program to provide a community service function to those advocacy groups geared toward helping encourage and educate others about prison life. The program (at the time of this research) is run by the prison unit administration (employees of the Department of Correction) using inmate volunteers who have been approved by their warden to interact as part of this program. 12 of these volunteers agreed to meet with the research team and share their thoughts as both inmates and mothers. During this focus group session, Program members at the McPherson Prison Unit were gathered in a common room in the presence of guards and were asked to describe their experiences in connection with the criminal justice system (e.g. arrest, dealings with counsel, and knowledge of the system prior to conviction). It was explained to the group that the aim of our research was to understand an incarcerated individual's life in order to come up with appropriate communication concepts of the criminal justice system to teach children of incarcerated parents. The group was informed that their participation would be voluntary and reminded that they could withdraw from participation at any time without any repercussions. The team's session with the inmates lasted one hour and no last names of any inmates were asked or documented by the research team to protect their confidentiality anonymity. At the end of both focus group sessions for this study (i.e. Varner Prison Unit and McPherson Prison Unit), the research team extended thanks and were told by the inmates that they were appreciative of the fact that researchers were focusing on helping 'their kids' (i.e. helping all children of incarcerated parents).

Analysis of Data

The responses from inmates were recorded in detail. The notes of the discussions were transcribed and provided much information about appropriately communicating the structures and processes of the American criminal justice system. The discussions and interviews were coded using the constant comparison method for open-ended themes (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). The coded response options are found within Figure 1.

The nature and character of the conversations were cleaned of repetitions. The authors individually read all the transcripts and came up with independent lists of themes that seemed apparent in the discussion threads. A second reading of the transcribed data resulted in further refining the themes and agreement about particular themes to focus on in the analysis. The inmate participants' discussion and the themes were then compiled. Finally, these themes were identified for similarities and differences with respect to each specific prison facility.

Findings and Discussion

The three research questions were answered by examining emergent themes. These themes were prison as adult daycare, emotional drain for children, prison and family cycle, understanding law, value of education, understanding realities of prison life, cultivating and maintaining discipline, and impact of prison on the entire family. Inmates discussed the everyday reality of ascribing meaning to incarceration as it impacted families and how it become part of a cycle leading to incarceration for many themselves. Generally, mothers expressed that families were fixated with prison and either wanted to work with the incarcerated parent or abandon/avoid the incarcerated parent altogether. Parents further interpreted many of their children as either seeing incarceration as something to be avoided or considering incarceration as their destiny. The following is a discussion of the themes in answer to R.Q.1: How do inmates make meaning of their incarceration?

Prison as Adult Daycare

Inmates in both facilities gave meaning to their incarceration by equating a prison facility with a form of adult daycare. Respondents noted that a prison provides a strict regimen, rules to adhere to for carrying out everyday activities that result in lot of individuals being treated as unruly adolescents. Sally, an inmate said, "Well, being incarcerated is just like being in adult daycare. Everything we do every moment of our life inside a cell is regulated and so we are told what to do exactly-where we go, what to eat, read, play and even talk. You can't stand the fact that you're told what to do form sun-up to sundown. It is very frustrating for me personally, and I hate it completely."

Inmates in general have difficulty in adhering to such a strict regiment once they are incarcerated and find it a hard aspect of making sense of life inside prison. They fear that their children do not understand the harsh life inside a prison. "The kids really need to understand that if they get incarcerated they will lose that freedom," said Ryan. Paul, another inmate, expressed that society no longer is concerned about their plight and said that society has forgotten individuals inside a prison. He said, "The society has placed us out of their sight and thus out of mind too. Putting us in this adult daycare has consequences to society as not enough is done to focus on our rehabilitation."

Sam, another incarcerated individual, expressed that it is hard for him because his children do not know that he is incarcerated. "My kids don't even know that I'm in here, and they just think that I'm gone." Explaining about the role of caregivers Robert said, "Caregivers [including grandparents] don't even know how the system works, and they don't know how do deal with prison, much less, how to help my kids deal with it, I can myself hardly deal with it." Another inmate, Mark, said that it is hard for him to function when he gets out of prison after living a very regulated life. "If you do whatever you have been doing when you're on the outside of the prison system, then it makes survival on the inside that much harder. When you come into a prison you can't just do whatever you want, when you want-no matter what. One does not understand or appreciate the difference of this simple fact until you are actually in a confined in a prison." Mark added that when he was outside, he did not understand the seriousness of being incarcerated; he now understands.

Emotional Drain for Children

Inmates expressed that their absence results in an intense emotional drain on their family and loved ones, particularly their children. The Varner inmates addressed more about the impact of emotional drain on the family than McPherson inmates. Specifically, the inmates at Varner addressed the lack of support from caregivers and advocacy groups in helping understand that the parent is still human and might be redeemable. Inmates expressed that many of their own children believed that their options in life as a result of their parents being in prison are limited and fear that their children might end up making the same mistakes without appropriate support to redirect them.

Philip, an inmate said, "Our children have to adjust to us being gone, and then they must adjust again when we get back out. The whole time we're in, our kids are moving from our parents and other members of the family to foster parents to caregivers." Benjamin agreed that the lack of communication with his children is an emotional drain, "Bonding when I am in prison is hard, because I don't even know how to relate to them because I'm not around. I feel like they can't rely on me or trust me anymore. How am I going to be able to understand what they're going through, they have no idea what I went through?

"My kids think I'm in the hospital," Vennessa, another inmate said, "Anger and resentment makes it harder while we're in and when we get out too. We think we need to teach the kids to be themselves, and not think of themselves as failures because we're in here."

Prison and Family Cycle

McPherson inmates indicated that they recognize their children are more likely to become incarcerated due to their current incarceration. The inmates indicated that no matter which facility an inmate belonged to, once incarcerated, a financial drain results, making it more difficult to make ends meet. Additionally, once one parent is incarcerated, additional burden is placed on either the other parent or typically a grandparent. An inmate, Taylor, feared, "When I was living with my kids, I did the same things my parents did: drugs, prostitution, and just being gone, and I said I was never gonna be like that but I did anyway. Now I fear what they [children] must be doing on their own now that when I am here and not around them. I don't want my kids to end up like I did, but I feel they will."

Inmates claimed that individuals who are taking care of their children, mostly their own parents and other caregivers, do not have a livable income or an understanding of how to properly address coping issues associated with having an incarcerated parent. Inmates stated that they have seen parents and their children incarcerated within the same facility. Mary said, "It's like we're living like we said we never would and we need to stop it before our kids end up in here," Melissa worried about her son: "My son, and the way he acts, really makes me worry, because my mother has no idea what he's doing. He's probably going to be in before I even get out." Elizabeth said, "My son is locked up right now. Both my brothers are in right now, and I'm here for life. Paula added to the same feelings: "I don't even see my kids, and I just hope that I don't see them in next to me one day." Most inmates viewed incarceration as a continuous cycle in their family and feared that their children would most likely end up in prison.

R.Q.2: What according to inmates can empower youth towards avoiding crime and thus incarceration? was answered by examining the following themes.

Decision Making

Inmates at both the prison facilities addressed the importance of inculcating good decision-making skills to their children as a means to prevent their incarceration. They provided personal stories about circumstances leading to their own incarceration as examples of poor decision-making on their part. The inmates indicated that their being incarcerated was a result of poor decision-making in both the commission of their crimes and the people they associated with who engaged in them. Mathew, an inmate, indicated that he realized that his actions were criminal (e.g. cooking methamphetamine and check fraud) but did not think that his choices could result in the harsh reality of prison life. "I always thought that my actions were minimal or petty crimes and would not result in harsh sentences. First, it was a poor decision-making on my side to indulge in these activities and further I lacked an understanding of the law."

Another inmate described that she and her fellow inmates in the prison did not realize that they needed to pay such close attention to the people they associated with and to think ahead rather than in-the-moment. She gave an example of riding in a car with her boyfriend who carried a weapon and attempted a robbery, landing her in prison only because she happened to be with him. "I was not thinking about the company I was in and also the serious result of my simple action as riding with my boyfriend can have. Obviously, it was a case of poor decision-making."

Inmates of both facilities indicated that children need to be taught how to make sound decisions at an early age. The majority agreed that if inmates had knowledge about the criminal justice system they would have made better decisions. Keri, an inmate, said, "I'm in here because I was with my boyfriend when it went down, and if I could go back, I would do it different. I ran with the wrong people, and look where it got me. Now my son's friends are the kind of people I don't want him around, but how can I stop it or teach him better when I am locked up?" I wish I could help him get away from the things he's doing, so he won't be where I am." The inmates at both facilities stressed that children need to understand these realities so that they may not unknowingly succumb to the harsh penalty of imprisonment. Several inmates commented that their low economic status prior to incarceration was a factor in poor decision-making (i.e. greater chance of not having education and/or role models).

Understanding Law

Inmates indicated that their lack of understanding of the different types of attorneys with respect to representation was very low and a central element in their being incarcerated. The Varner facility inmates stressed that understanding advantages and disadvantages to a certain type of attorney could make a difference in terms of legal options afforded them by their counsel and by the prosecutor. The McPherson facility inmates mirrored Varner facility inmates' responses and stressed the lack of time some attorneys spend on their cases. Several inmates indicated that their defense counsel did not provide an accurate picture of the amount of prison time they would serve and pressured them into taking a plea bargain rather than going through a trial. Deborah said, "I had no clue about how the different legal remedies that are available to me and what I should tell the police or how I should give the statements or for that matter how to speak before a judge. They asked me a few questions and I was so terrified and listened to the wrong lawyer who said just say yes and your sentence will be lowered which I did. Now I know that has resulted in me spending five more years in prison."

Inmates indicated they believed in the stereotype of expensive attorneys always winning and emphasized that caregivers/parents should understand this prior to mortgaging homes and making other financial decisions. "It ruined my family and myself. I told to myself that oh I will get out of this crime if I hire a good expensive lawyer. So I did whatever it took to get the most expensive lawyer--I put my house on mortgage and further took expensive loans only to find that the decision was not in my favor. Now I know that if I had not gotten to these and been little careful at least my family would not have been in debt." This theme was repeated by several inmates.

Value of Education

The inmates at McPherson facility indicated the need for children to understand the intricacies associated with the functioning of police, courts, and corrections. These inmates specifically addressed the major criminal justice components and indicated knowledge of only one component (e.g. police) does not properly prepare individuals to understand the way these components work together as a system. The Varner inmates echoed the same type of comments on the criminal justice system, but were less specific than the McPherson inmates (e.g. referral to the entire system more than specific components). Gabriella from McPherson explained, "I just want my kids to know that getting their education is the only thing that will help them straighten up and stay out of trouble, don't make the same mistakes I did and understand the working of good education. Another inmate, Martha, said, "If you go to school, and do what you're supposed to, then you can stay outta here. Once you have an education, nobody can take that from you."

The Varner inmates brought up the theme of understanding constitutional rights. The inmates indicated that many of them lacked knowledge of basic rights (e.g., Darryl) and therefore did not know how to avail themselves of those rights. The inmates stressed that children of incarcerated parents need to know their rights in case they are accused (rightly or wrongly) of a crime, so that they do not unknowingly waive those rights and can understand if those rights have been violated. "I didn't understand what I was doing, and my lawyer just told me to do it [agree to plea]. My kids don't how what they do can affect them later."

There was low similarity between the inmates at the different units on the category of appreciating the value of education. The Varner inmates said that children must complete their formal education in order to learn a skill, thus possibly deterring illegal behavior. The McPherson facility inmates indicated the need for educating children less frequently. The Varner facility inmates agreed that prison programs are valuable and children should understand these programs so that they might better decide if they want to be part of inmates' lives. There was an even distribution on the reality of programs to rehabilitate inmates. Some inmates stated that the number of current programs is sufficient and that many inmates simply do not utilize them. Other inmates indicated that not nearly enough programs exist. The inmates indicated that education about the system does not equate to becoming more knowledgeable on how to get away with crime. Additionally, the inmates indicated that once one has entered the criminal justice system (i.e. accused of a crime), it is important to realize that not everyone involved is concerned with what is best for them.

A few inmates stated that political authorities might not care or understand this reality and create harsher laws on crime without providing needed social programs to help keep children on the right path. Several of the McPherson facility inmates indicated that such political action might actually increase the chance of children of incarcerated parents being incarcerated.

R. Q. 3: What concepts of the criminal justice system would the inmates want to appropriately communicate to their children in order to reduce or stop their possible incarceration? The central theme that emerged through the inmates' discussion was the importance of understanding better the police, courts and corrections in order to help their children avoid criminality. Within in these three pillars of the criminal justice system, the inmates further identified sub-topics for communication to children to prevent or reduce future incarceration. Male inmates at Varner facility opined that they and their children needed a better understanding of the American criminal justice system to better understand the scope, consequences, and complexity of illegal behavior. Inmates identified a lack of understanding about the functioning of these systems as one of the primary factors for their not respecting the power of that system which so impacts their personal and families' lives. Female inmates at McPherson facility indicated that they might have made better decisions if they had a more comprehensive understanding of the American criminal justice system prior to their incarceration and stressed themes from their experiences that should be communicated to their children in order to reduce or stop their involvement in crime and thus incarceration.

The following themes were also analyzed as answers to R.Q. 3.

Understanding Realities of Prison Life

The Varner facility inmates described prison life to be undesirable. The inmates stressed that children do not know what life is like inside a prison. They felt that children are mystified about prison life and assume it is not difficult. Betty said, "Our children must understand prison means lack of complete authority to control one's self on a day-to-day basis." Inmates indicated that to understand prison life one has to understand how the system works within prison and the difficultly for individuals to adjust to the lack of personal control. The McPherson facility inmates emphasized the challenge of adjustment to prison life and discussed violence in prison as well as loneliness. David said, "My kids don't even know that I'm in here, and they just think that I'm gone."

Inmates repeatedly asked the researchers to help their children understand that there are official prison rules enforced by prison officials (e.g., guards) and there are informal prison rules enforced by inmates that require respect for boundaries with other inmates. Inmates at both facilities explained that children need to understand these realities and different sets of rules. John from the McPherson unit said, "Abiding by both sets of rules is very difficult. The rules by prison officials restricts your life and has serious consequences in terms your stay inside a prison. The rules enforced by inmates are even worse and deal with personality conflicts which are even more difficult to adhere to. I hate both the rules but more so the unwritten, unspecified rules imposed by other inmates."

Inmates from both units had similar views with regards to the image of prison in their children's eyes. Inmates felt that many children (especially those with incarcerated parents like their own) see life inside a prison as advantageous and, in some cases, a badge of honor. Mark remarked, "The children do not realize the complexity of living in a prison. It has been normalized for them that living in prison is much like living anywhere. Most of the influence is by watching television. My children are not scared when they talk about prison and that makes me worry. Their attitude towards prison might mean that they will end up here someday." Most inmates expressed that education efforts targeted at reducing future incarceration needs to communicate the problematic aspect of prison life to children.

Appropriate Ways of Interacting with Law Enforcement

Inmates at both prison facilities were in agreement about education of their children regarding appropriate ways to interact with law enforcement officials. Varner inmates expressed the paramount importance that children understand how to deal with law enforcement officials. Joshua said, "I feel we would be able to stop many cases of incarceration if children know what to talk with prison officials when they are stopped by the police. A simple wrong utterance of words lands them in a soup and brings them behind bars." At McPherson, Denise stated, "Children especially in the teenage group do not understand the seriousness involved when they are interrogated by police officials. Teaching appropriate ways of dealing with police is very important."

Inmates reasoned that education on stereotypes and the role of language should be included in communication efforts. Mark mentioned, "There is a lot of stress and lack of understanding about people within a community (e.g. poor, minority, or language barriers) that is leading to escalation during police stops. There are a lot of stereotypes that exist both about police and various ethnicities which should not dominate how children view police." The inmates added that the researchers should communicate how and why encounters with police can become problematic by emphasizing that calm should prevail, no matter how the person stopped might feel about it. Joshua said, "Cops are seen as the bad guys, and that's not the case at all-they're there to help. However, children just try to run away and speak inappropriately with the cops resulting in inviting problems for themselves." Peter added, "All the kids see cops as the enemy, and this makes them hate dealing with them." Gregory voiced, "Where I'm from, nobody likes you if you're in with the cops--so it's like you have to hate them." Dinda agreed, "Kids today don't know how to deal with authority, and that makes it easier to get locked up. You have to know how to talk to the cops to stay out of trouble."

Cultivating and Maintaining Discipline

Inmates discussed their views on the larger issue of cultivating and maintaining discipline in their children as an essential aspect of avoiding incarceration. Varner facility inmates stressed the importance of discipline for children. They explained that children must understand that discipline inculcated by a parent or caregiver is meant to help them become better people. Margaret said: "Children because of us their parents being away and because of their circumstances lack role models which can tell them about the importance of cultivating and maintaining discipline in life. According to me if you can include teaching discipline it would really help them to avoid incarceration." Inmates acknowledged that they did not appreciate the role of discipline before becoming incarcerated themselves and that they might have made better decisions had they listened and respected authority.

Reiterating earlier viewpoints, inmates indicated that the researchers must stress the harsh realities of prison. Carmen said, "We inmates have to deal with strict discipline inside the prison and have no personal life. It is like a clock that we need to follow day in and day out. The life outside is much free and the discipline expected from one who is outside the prison is very minute compared to the enormity of discipline expected within prison." Therefore, she added, those who defy law and do not show discipline in the outside world would likely find survival within prison even more difficult. Mary added, "While I'm in here, my son is out running the streets, and doing what ever he wants to do and my mother can't make him do what he's supposed to do. Not understanding the value of discipline will lead to serious consequences not only for him but for all of us."

Impact of Prison on the Entire Family

Incarceration of one family member can impact the person's entire family. Many of the inmates' families do not have adequate education and income to survive while the parent is incarcerated. These caregivers often lack education and income; many are the parents of the inmates. Inmates at both facilities agreed to the importance of this topic. However, there were more female inmates at McPherson facility which particularly indicated that their incarceration impacts their entire families and that addressing this cycle is an important concept to communicate and teach children. Christina said, "I grew up without a lot and had kids when I was young; I didn't have that much education, and when I saw the chance to get money fast and easy, I did it, that's why I'm here for hot checks, and identity theft. I didn't mean to hurt anyone, but my mistakes are hurting my kids. Now it is impacting my entire family. I feel if you can somehow stress to children that their actions impacts their entire family will account for lot of good."

Thomas at the Varner facility supported her opinion. "Peoples out there doing what they gotta do to make ends, and I thought, at the time, that I would not get caught. But, here I am inside the prison. It has ruined and impacted not only my life but also my children by extended family. So, it is indeed a bad thing to be stressed not to get involved in." The McPherson facility inmates indicated that the number of alternatives and ease of access to alternatives must be addressed with children because many caregivers are not aware of various programs to help reduce recidivism. Several of the inmates stated that though they appreciate that their children are under supervision, they would like to know how much support and options caregivers are provided. The inmates desired children to understand that caregivers are (at minimum) providing support and that counseling and visitation are important to help children cope with having an incarcerated parent. "They [caregivers, grandparents] don't even know how the system works, and they don't know how do deal with prison, much less how to help my kids deal with it; I can hardly deal with it."

Figure 2., provides a diagrammatic view of which categories the inmates at both units indicated as important to teach children of incarcerated parents about the American criminal justice system. What is also provided in Figure 2. is the understanding of differences between responses at these prison units on what is important to communicate to children of incarcerated parents.

Conclusion

The present study reveals that inmates find value in the various prison education programs and suggest means of addressing communication and education issues for their children to avoid incarceration in the future. It confirms past research about reaching children of incarcerated parents (Murdo, 1997). Inmates understood the importance that communication plays in their and their children's understanding of the criminal justice system. Essentially supporting previous research on providing realistic understanding on how children are negatively influenced on the impact of choosing violence (Hertz, 1994). They suggested topics for curriculum and stressed changes in educational content, which could mean less incarceration. Suggestions from inmates based on themes relating to understanding law, understanding realities of prison life, value of education, ways of interacting with law enforcement, and value of discipline were evident in order to prepare the needed material to reach these youth. The inmates emphasized re-educating parents/caregivers and policymakers about areas in which to protect and nurture youth.

This study sought input from one of the groups who best understands the realities of incarceration on parenthood. The inmates provided guidance to help children about the American criminal justice system, and described the importance of efforts focused on improving the chances of their children. Only a small number of inmates blamed the system as the sole reason for their being incarcerated. Instead, most inmates stated they committed crimes and described their crimes even without being prompted. They stated how they realize they made poor decisions and acknowledged that they should not be released, based on their crimes.

Moreover, these inmates provide a foundation for the education of children of incarcerated parents and emphasize new and old themes that are presently taught in various programs. The study suggests that greater effort by policymakers is needed to understand the views of children of incarcerated parents and of caregivers about education and communication of the criminal justice system. If such understanding is matched with inmates' understanding, policymakers and officials in charge of implementing policy can make better decisions about appropriate ways to address the problem of incarcerated parents' children.

In the context of framing appropriate policies to increase funding and support for programs using inmates to help educate youth about their decisions, the present study indicates that understanding police power, constitutional rights, attorney types, and the harshness of prison, could help address the misnomer of prison and crime as status symbols. Additionally, the inmates indicated that there are problems with how the American criminal justice system functions and that their children are presumed by many in society as potentially criminal. The present research suggests that such communication about the justice system to youth (especially children of incarcerated parents) should empower youth to avail themselves of their rights and not to presume they are powerless when dealing with the system. To conclude, the inmates outlined concepts that are appropriate to be taught to youth. Undertaking this effort at an early age using appropriate methods could result in better chances for children of incarcerated parents at being good citizens.

This research was funded by a University of Arkansas at Little Rock Community University Partnership Grant and was conducted as part of a larger study by the Even Start Literacy Project. The authors are grateful for the participation by inmates, Dr. Charles Chastain, Lori Tacker, Ida Works, and Assistant Warden Maggie Capel of the Arkansas Department of Corrections. This research was presented at 2006 National Communication Association Meeting held in San Antonio, Texas.

Endnotes

(i) The case of Brenton Butler is famous and involved the investigation and prosecution of a fifteen year-old boy wrongly accused of robbing an elderly couple who were tourists in Jacksonville, Florida. The assailant killed one of the tourists and the husband of the victim identified Butler as the assailant after Butler (who was merely walking down the street) was asked by police to get into a patrol car and was shown to the husband as the possible assailant. HBO completed a documentary by following the defense attorneys assigned to the case and the result is a well-documented story of a young man who did not know his rights and was the apparent scapegoat for the prosecution and police in order to calm public concerns about crime against tourists. This documentary provides horrid details of a young man who was questioned without his parents and beaten toward a confession; in the documentary Butler acknowledges how he did not understand the scope of what he was asked to sign and, in fact, detectives contradicted each other on the witness stand, demonstrating how shallow the case was and that there was little investigation completed. Butler was acquitted of the charges and the real killer (Juan Curtis) was found after Curtis bragged about the crime while incarcerated for another offense. The victim's purse was pulled from the evidence box and tested for fingerprints, revealing that Curtis was the real robber and killer. This case is useful in understanding the lack of knowledge young people have about how the criminal justice system works.

(ii) Names of inmates have been changed to protect their identities.

(ii) At the time of this study's data collection, the Community Reentry Program was held at the Varner Prison Unit. The program moved and is currently held at the Pine Bluff Prison Unit.

(iii) Members of the Inmate Leadership Council members are leaders in the prison and serve a mentoring role especially with new inmates. During Community Reentry sessions, the members make it a point to provide discipline, encouragement, and a buffer to address any "rough spots" in interaction between program participants and outsiders attending to complete interactive learning sessions. Of note, since its inception, this council has had little turnover in membership.

(iv) At the time of this study's data collection, the Community Reentry Program was held at the Varner Prison Unit. The program moved and is currently held at the Pine Bluff Prison Unit.

(v) Members of the Inmate Leadership Council members are leaders in the prison and serve a mentoring role especially with new inmates. During Community Reentry sessions, the members make it a point to provide discipline, encouragement, and a buffer to address any "rough spots" in interaction between program participants and outsiders attending to complete interactive learning sessions. Of note, since its inception, this council has had little turnover in membership.

(vi) These female inmates perform similar focus groups and discussions frequently, working with numerous groups attempting to let these women serve as an example to others either thinking about or currently engaging in unacceptable behavior (especially youth).

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Figure 1.: Category numbers and corresponding response possibilities
used to compare inmate responses by specific prison.

Categories Coded Response Possibilities

 1 Inmates did not have adequate knowledge of the CRJU system
 prior to incarceration
 2 Must teach decision masking
 3 Must teach understanding of police power, courts and
 corrections
 4 Must teach understanding types of attorneys
 5 Must teach realities of prison life
 6 Must teach constitutional rights
 7 Must teach how to deal with law enforcement
 8 Prison is really a form of adult daycare
 9 Understanding of prison education programs
10 Emotions due to Incarcerated parents
11 Appreciation of the value of education
12 Discipline
13 Family prison cycle-external factor
14 Alternative for caregivers
15 Prison and administration:
 a) Resident parole toward successful reentering
 b) Understanding inmate classification
16 Ethics-right and wrong