A cross-cultural comparison of values and gender among university students.

Amyx, Douglas A. ; Bristow, Dennis N. ; Luehlfing, Michael S. 等

ABSTRACT

The values of Navajo and Anglo university students were compared using the List of Values (LOV) scale and the Marketing Lens Model. The results showed that significant cultural differences existed between Navajo and Anglos with respect to four of the eight LOV items. On a cross-gender basis, the results revealed significant differences between Anglo men and women with respect to six of the eight LOV items. In contrast, no significant differences were found between Navajo men and women. The findings offer strategies for university administrators and educators regarding educational offerings, promotion of the university, and the retention of students.

INTRODUCTION

A few years ago, a group of enterprising university officials dreamed of creating an academic program designed to meet the educational and career needs of Navajo Indian students. The dream became a reality--property was purchased, instructional personnel were hired, new buildings were erected, and equipment and supplies were acquired--and the new school was opened. Unfortunately, despite the preparations and planning of the school officials, one important element was missing: virtually no Navajo students were enrolled at the school.

After extensive research, the reason for the lack of Navajo students at the school became apparent--an element of the Navajo culture called a "skinwalker." In the traditional Navajo culture, a skinwalker is a small demon that burrows beneath a tribal member's skin and bedevils that person. Tribal members prior to occupying a new home--or school--the tribal holy man must bless the building and drive out the skinwalkers. Violation of this traditional cultural belief results in the Navajo's belief that the demons will inhabit the dwelling and torment anyone who enters that building. In short, because an important cultural difference between the Navajo students and students from other cultural backgrounds had been overlooked, a multimillion dollar educational product was virtually unused by the targeted students.

The skinwalker is just one of many major differences that exist between the value systems of the American Indian and Anglo cultures. Specifically, the Anglo culture has traditionally been more male-oriented, patriarchal than the egalitarian-oriented American Indian culture (Johnston, 1999; Lujan, 1995; Seggerman, 1986). For example, the Anglo culture has historically valued the role of males within the family, and land or other inheritance was passed from fathers to sons. In contrast, the Navajo American Indian culture passes property down through the mother to the daughter (Seggerman, 1986).

Such cultural differences are reflected in the changing makeup of the student population on university campuses across the United States. Statistics compiled by the U.S. Department of Education (2002) show that the percentage of minority college students (Black, Hispanic, Asian/Pacific Islander or American Indian) has increased from approximately 15% in 1976 to 28% in 2000. Government documents also reveal that university student enrollment in the United States is predicted to increase to some 16 million by the year 2015 and that minority students will make up some 80% of that increase. Further, the American Council of Education (2003) reported that during the twenty year period between 1981 and 2001, the number of American Indian college students increased by 80%.

Realizing that such cultural differences exist, educators need to be sensitive to cultural diversity and strive for a more thorough understanding of the unique values and beliefs held by increasingly diverse student populations. Only through a better understanding of students can educators and administrators provide a student-oriented, quality education and a better learning environment. One way in which university officials can gain such understanding is through the implementation of the marketing concept. This concept is based upon the fundamental belief that a customer orientation is key to the mutual satisfaction of institutional and student needs (e.g., Drucker 1954; Webster 1988; Perreault and McCarthy 2002). The marketing concept and a customer orientation have been successfully applied in higher education in recent years (e.g., Bristow 1998; Amyx and Bristow 1999; Bristow and Schneider 2002) and have been used as nomological net in the current study. An important element in those previous studies and the current work is that while students are viewed as customers of the university, the needs of students must be balanced with the need for the university to provide a quality, rigorous educational product.

The objectives of this study were two-fold. First, we explored cross-cultural differences in values between students from an American Indian culture, the Navajo, and students from the Anglo culture. Second, we examined value differences between men and women within each culture. Understanding the values of one's core customers may yield many benefits, such as identifying strategies for educators to administer educational offerings, promote the university, and retain students.

In general, understanding customers' values is important because they serve as guiding principles in everyday life (Kahle, 1983). Values are enduring, desirable end-states that when realized in a particular cultural context, provide a basis for specific attitudes and behaviors (Kahle, Rose, & Shoham, 1999). The List of Values (LOV) scale, developed by Kahle (1983), was used in the current study to measure cultural values. The LOV scale focuses on eight values: (1) security, (2) sense of belonging, (3) being well respected, (4) self-respect, (5) warm relationships with others, (6) sense of accomplishment, (7) self-fulfillment, and (8) fun and enjoyment in life/excitement. Researchers have employed the LOV in numerous cultural contexts to explain the most important social values across the globe (e.g., Kahle, et al., 1999; Kahle, Beatty, & Mager 1994). Kahle (1996) provides a comprehensive review of the theoretical foundations and empirical use of LOV.

BACKGROUND AND HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT

While the U.S. has been referred to as "American's melting pot," suggesting that all cultures within this country become blended into one prevailing culture, perhaps a better description would be "America's Rainbow," or "ethnic mosaic." As suggested by Panko and Smith (1997) and Shim and Gehrt (1996), such labels better illustrate how cultural groups in the U.S., including the Navajo, seek to preserve their cultural traditions and values. Along with increased diversity comes diversity in consumer values and needs which often manifest themselves in consumer behavior. For example, Bristow and Amyx (1998) and Amyx and Bristow (1999) found evidence that students from various cultures expressed significantly different preferences with regard to the type of educational services they received. Specifically, Anglo and Asian students differed in the importance they placed on five educational elements (i.e., adjunct faculty, audio/visual, computer labs, library resources, and classrooms). Thus, as members of a culture seek to maintain their cultural values and identity, they are more likely to possess a uniquely different perspective of the world relative to other cultures' perceptions.

The concept that culture may influence our perception is nothing new. Brunswik (1952) recognized that such factors as values and experiences influence how one perceives the environment. Brunswik used the analogy that individuals view the world through a set of "cognitive lenses" that are individually crafted and shaped by one's unique background. Similar to Brunswik's lens, the Marketing Lens Model (MLM) posits that unique life experiences help to create and shape a set of lens through which the environment is perceived and interpreted (Bristow 1988). The MLM is an extension of Brunswik's earlier work and has been used as the theoretical foundation for predicting different perspectives between cultural groups in a variety of circumstances (Bristow, Mowen, and Krieger, 1994; Licatta, Mowen, & Chakraborty, 1995; Amyx & Bristow, 1999; Bristow and Asquith, 1999; Bristow and Amyx 1998). Thus, the MLM is useful for conceptualizing the existence of different perspectives between cultures based on the diversity of cultural values (LOV). Accordingly, individuals from separate cultures may emphasize different elements of their environment due to their divergent experiences, values, norms, and or traditions.

In our study, we employed the MLM to explain cross-cultural and gender value differences. As shown in Figure 1, the MLM consists of three distinct components. The left side of the model is comprised of quantifiable, measurable elements of the consumer's environment. In the current study, this left side of the model consisted of the eight LOV elements. The second part of the MLM consists of the consumer's perceptual lens--that is, his/her view of the environmental elements as shaped by his/her experiences, expectations, cultural values and beliefs, and so on. One's cultural background has been shown to significantly impact his/her perceptual lens (e.g., Bristow and Asquith, 1999; Amyx and Bristow 1999; Bristow and Amyx 1998). Finally, the right side of the model facilitates the empirical comparison, via psychometric analyses, of one or more groups' perceptions of a shared environment.

[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]

As noted above, in this study the eight LOV items served as the environmental elements to be compared across the Navajo and Anglo cultures. The authors first sought to examine whether significant differences existed between aggregate cultural values of Navajo and Anglo students. Because of the different perspectives or lenses possessed by the more egalitarian Navajo culture and the more patriarchal Anglo culture, the following hypothesis was developed:

H1: Anglo and Navajo students differ in the importance placed on the
 LOV items.

In addition to cultural differences, individuals within a culture are also likely to possess differences in values (i.e., between men and women in the same culture). While John Gray (1992) voiced that men are from Mars and women are from Venus, the MLM suggests that men and women are likely to view the world from different lenses as a result of having different experiences, expectations, and perhaps values.

Researchers have examined the differences between men and women for many years (Brenner & Greenhaus, 1979; Calvert & Ramsey, 1992; Fagenson, 1990; Freedman & Phillips, 1988; Kanter, 1977; Riger & Galligan, 1980; Adler 2000; Catalyst Census of Women 2001). Women have been identified as more intuitive, more extroverted, more feeling, and more perceptive than men (Duchatelet, 1998; Miller, 1976; Myers, 1991). Women have also been described as more likely to use a participatory and collaborative style of leading (Richardson, 1999), more sensitive to verbal nuances, and more empathetic (Schrage, 1999). While overall gender differences among Anglos in the U.S. have been well documented, it remains unclear whether Navajo men and women have the same gender based differences as Anglo men and women.

Significantly, while women in the Anglo culture have struggled for equality for many years, American Indian cultures have long accepted that women are equal to their male counterparts (Johnston, 1999; Lujan, 1995; Seggerman, 1986). In light of evidence that the Anglo culture is patriarchal and the Navajo culture tends towards egalitarianism, it stands to reason that gender differences should be much more pronounced in the Anglo society. Thus, with respect to values, we expect greater differences to exist between Anglo men and women than between Navajo men and women.

H2: Greater differences in values exist between Anglo men and women
 than between Navajo men and women.

METHOD AND DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

The eight items of the LOV scale (security, sense of belonging, being well respected, self-respect, warm relationships with others, sense of accomplishment, self-fulfillment, and fun and enjoyment in life/excitement) were used to measure values. The LOV items were measured using 9-point Likert scales with response categories ranging from "Very Unimportant" (1) to "Very Important" (9).

The survey instrument was administered to students during regularly scheduled class times. To avoid self selection bias within the sample, the data were collected on varying days of the week and at various times of the day over a period of three days. Additionally, the student sample was drawn from a variety of academic disciplines.

A total of 397 students (152 Navajo and 245 Anglos) from two universities, one located in the upper Midwest (Anglo) and the other in the Southwest region (Navajo) of the United States, participated in the study. Table 1 below presents a demographic profile of the subjects. The majority of the students in this study were underclassmen (i.e., freshmen or sophomores) and single. While the median age among Navajo was 23-27 years compared to 18-22 years among Anglos, the mode for each group was 18-22 years. The Navajo student group included 96 women (63.6%) and 55 men (36.4%). Those percentages closely mirror the gender makeup of American Indian students (female = 77%; male = 23%) across the U.S. (Brownstein, 2000).

The Anglo student group in the study included 112 females (46%) and 133 males (54%). Brownstein (2000) reported that nationwide, women make up some 51% of the Anglo university student population. Among all U.S. students attending four-year colleges and universities, women are in the majority with a 55% to 45% split (Brownstein 2000).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Analysis of variance was employed to test both hypotheses. Results for H1 are summarized below and in Table 2 while results for H2 are provided in Tables 3 and 4.

H1: Anglo and Navajo students differ in the importance placed on the
 LOV items.

Hypothesis H1 was based upon the predicted impact of patriarchal versus egalitarian societies on the values of their members. Although the two cultures studied consisted of U.S. students enrolled in American universities, the results revealed that Navajo and Anglo university students differed significantly on the level of importance they attached to warm relationships with others, security, self respect, and accomplishment. Thus, H1 was supported among four of the eight LOV items.

Anglos valued warm relationships with others ([bar.x]=7.97) to a greater degree than their Navajo counterparts ([bar.x]=7.68). Although this result may seem surprising, a closer examination of the lifestyles of the two cultures offers additional insight. Navajo families often include grandparents, aunts, uncles and cousins, while many Anglo families focus on the nuclear family, consisting of parents and children. There has been a significant erosion of Anglo family into single parent households. Married-couple households in the U.S. have dropped from almost 80% in the 1950s to just 50.7% in 2003 (Conlin, 2003). It may well be that Navajo students rely on relationships with members of their extended family while Anglo students are forced to seek social relationships outside the family circle. Perhaps because of the additional relationships many Anglos are forced to build, they have placed more importance on warm relationships.

The Navajo emphasized security ([bar.x]=8.14) more so than Anglos ([bar.x]=7.84). Additionally, the Navajo also placed significantly more importance on both self respect ([bar.x]=8.59) and sense of accomplishment ([bar.x]=8.58) than did their Anglo counterparts ([bar.x]=8.29 and [bar.x]=8.28 respectively). These findings may be explained in part by the lifestyle differences between Navajos and Anglos. In comparison to Anglos, the Navajo have been a minority in America for many years and like other American Indian tribes, have been victims of some of the most blatant forms of discrimination. As recently as 1974, Navajo lands were taken away and the Navajo people were relocated because it was discovered that the land they were "given" back in 1882 was rich with mineral deposits. The previously classified "worthless" land was "repositioned" to allow U.S. mining endeavors to proceed and the Navajo were "devastated psychologically as well as financially" (Seggerman, 1986: pg. 9). Thus, it might be expected that security, accomplishment and self respect were more heavily valued by the Navajo participants, many of whom were first-generation college students.

H2: Greater differences in values exist between Anglo men and women
 than between Navajo men and women.

Hypothesis H2 was based upon the predicted impact of cultural gender experiences on the LOV values. Anglo men and women differed significantly on the level of importance they attached to six of the eight LOV elements (i.e., all values except fun and enjoyment, and sense of accomplishment). In contrast, Navajo men and women did not differ significantly on any of the eight LOV elements. Thus H2 was strongly supported.

Among the six values in which Anglo men and women varied significantly, Anglo women placed greater importance on each of those values than did Anglo men. Anglo women placed greater importance on the values of self fulfillment ([bar.x]=8.35 vs. [bar.x]=8.06), sense of belonging ([bar.x]=7.51 vs. [bar.x]=7.12), warm relationships with others ([bar.x]=8.29 vs. [bar.x]=7.71), being well respected by others ([bar.x]=8.22 vs. [bar.x]=7.81), security ([bar.x]=8.10 vs. [bar.x]=7.62), self respect ([bar.x]=8.46 vs. [bar.x]=8.15), and accomplishment ([bar.x]=8.41 vs. [bar.x]=8.17) than did Anglo males.

These results could be indicative of the patriarchal nature of Anglo society. That is, these needs may be more important to Anglo women than Anglo men because they are not being met in society to as high a degree as they are for Anglo males. For example, historically there has been a disparity in the number of women executives compared to men. Catalyst Census of Women (2001) predicted that gender parity on Fortune 500 boards would not happen until 2064. Also, Anglo women may be more connected with their feelings than Anglo men (Duchatelet, 1998; Miller, 1976; Myers, 1991) and thus rate these needs as much more important than do Anglo men. As predicted, based upon the earlier work of Johnston (1999), Lujan (1995), and Seggerman (1986), the results showed no significant differences in the importance placed on the eight LOV items by Navajo men and women.

IMPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATORS

The results of this research provide important insights for educators as they develop strategies related to the administration of educational offerings, promotion of the university, and the retention of students. Within the Navajo culture, educators may want to develop courses and provide services that emphasize the values of security, sense of accomplishment, and self respect. Educators cannot offer or emphasize all things to all students and therefore must identify those key elements (e.g., security, accomplishment, self respect) valued by the core customers and make subsequent strategic decisions.

For example, if seeking to make strategic decisions based upon the importance students place upon security, university administrators and marketers must first understand that security is a deficit value (Kahle 1996). That is, individuals who are secure and feel safe do not normally endorse this value. For example, as noted by Kahle in 1999, Israelis endorsed security as an important value and products that offered a sense of security were well received in that country. Kahle and his colleagues cautioned that care must be taken when promoting or offering programs based on deficit values, noting that respondents may react negatively to messages that come on too strong or lack subtlety (1999).

The Navajo also valued a sense of accomplishment more so than Anglos. Accomplishment is generally thought to be an internal value, which suggests an internal or personal sense of control. In addition to being an internal value, accomplishment is also an excess value, meaning that those who have accomplished a great amount are more likely to advocate accomplishment as an important value (Kahle, et al., 1999). In this regard, university promotional materials could emphasize the intrinsic and extrinsic reward to be obtained with a college degree or the accomplishments that can be achieved after graduation. Also, emphasizing student accomplishments while they are enrolled would be particularly valued and could positively impact student retention. For example, acknowledging the achievements of students through award ceremonies or other tangible recognition programs would likely be well received and highly valued.

Self respect, another important value among Navajo participants, is similar to achievement in that it is an internalized value relating to how one feels about him/herself. Thus, promotional material relating to the educational institution should incorporate a sense of self respect in addition to a sense of accomplishment. For example, institutions could emphasize something to the effect that as "you study hard and strive for the best, you also deserve the best education."

Among Anglos, warm relationships with others were particularly important. Here, educational institutions and their course offerings could be positioned within a social context, emphasizing the social aspects of college life and the close, family-like connections that may be formed while attending college.

With regard to the Navajo, no significant differences were found in the level of importance men and women attached to the eight LOV items. That finding suggests that promotional materials targeting Navajo students may have a more universal appeal and require less modification when based on values. Given the fact that women currently represent a significant majority of college bound American Indians (77%), universities may want to create promotional materials and course offerings designed specifically to recruit male Navajo students. While the sample of Navajo men and women students in this study appeared to share many of the same values, the values of Navajo men who chose not to pursue a higher education were not measured. Accordingly, it is not possible to compare the values of those individuals with the values of respondents in our sample. Reaching that untapped majority of non-college bound Navajo men might require different promotional and other marketing strategies.

Among Anglos, the gender differences in the importance of specific LOV items were in striking contrast to the Navajo students. The LOV items of self-fulfillment, sense of belonging, warm relationships with others, being well respected, security, and self respect were more highly valued by female Anglo students. Such gender differences in the importance of specific values provide university officials with intriguing insights. For example, such values as self-fulfillment and self respect are consistent with what is already understood about women's motivation to attend college. Research has shown that women in general tend to indicate educational reasons for attending college, such as "to gain a general education and appreciation of ideas" (Reisberg, 2000, p. A51). In contrast, many men reported being motivated to attend college due to the opportunity to gain greater wealth and to upgrade their credentials for career advancement. Ironically, money is often the reason many men have foregone an education and entered the workforce immediately after high school (Reynolds & Pemberton, 2001). Thus, when promoting higher education to Anglo women, educators should consider stressing the self edification that comes from life-long learning, and that higher education facilitates not just the learning of information, but also advances an understanding of how to learn.

The results of this study also showed that women value a sense of belonging and warm relationships with others. This finding, which is consistent with earlier research suggesting that women tend to be more in touch with their feelings (Duchatelet, 1998) and more empathetic (Schrage, 1999) than men, holds significant implications for university administrators. That is, the benefits of social interaction might be emphasized in both promotional campaigns and as an integral part the collegiate experience. Research has also shown that social interaction in the form of networking and mentoring is an important element in a woman's career success (CareerWomen.com, 2003; Oaki, 2001; Keating, 2002). That same research has shown that while such mentoring is important, significant numbers of women executives have difficulty finding workplace and career mentors. Given those findings, mentoring with other students and faculty might be emphasized as a part of the educational experience and an avenue by which women could effectively fulfill the need to connect with others and to satisfy their need for job security.

LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH

A limitation of this research includes possible geographic effects of the sample. The sample consisted of students from two different geographic locations (i.e., the mid-west and the southwest) and value differences may have been influenced in part by the Navajo and Anglo students being located in different parts of the country.

Also, the sample was comprised of a disproportionate number of Navajo women (63.6%) compared to Navajo men (36.4%). However, education statistics suggest that our sample may actually be over-representative of male American Indian students. The largest gender gap of U.S. students attending college is found among American Indians, where the number of women exceeds that of men by 77% to 23% (Brownstein, 2000).

Future research could also include other American Indian cultures. The values of the Navajo may not necessarily be generalizable to other American Indian cultures. Thus, the inclusion of other American Indian cultures would offer a more comprehensive assessment of cultural values.

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Douglas A. Amyx, Louisiana Tech University

Dennis N. Bristow, St. Cloud State University

Michael S. Luehlfing, Louisiana Tech University

Table 1. Demographic Profile of Participants

Ethnicity Navajo 152 * Anglo 245 *

Gender Male Female Total Male Female Total

Age
18-22 28 37 65 98 98 196
23-27 9 23 32 24 7 31
28-32 5 10 15 5 3 8
33-37 5 9 14 2 0 2
over 38 8 16 24 1 0 1
Total 55 96 151 133 112 245

Marital Status
Single 38 62 100 119 98 217
Married 13 23 36 12 12 24
Divorced 4 9 13 2 2 4
Widowed 0 1 1 0 0 0
Total 55 95 150 133 112 245

Class Standing
Freshman 26 39 65 4 5 9
Sophomore 21 41 62 1 5 6
Junior 4 8 12 82 80 162
Senior 2 6 8 43 21 64
Grad Student 3 1 4 1 0 1
Total 56 95 151 131 111 242

* Note: Due to non-response on some items, totals may differ.

Table 2. Level of Importance Attached to List of Values
Elements: ANOVA Results: Anglo and Navajo

List of Values Source SS Df MS F p<

Self-fulfillment Between 0.352 1 0.352 0.238 0.626
 Within 580.357 393 1.477
 Total 580.709 394

Belonging Between 0.538 1 0.538 0.189 0.664
 Within 1120.785 394 2.845
 Total 1121.323 395

Warm Between 8.097 1 8.097 4.299 0.039
relationships * Within 744.004 395 1.884
 Total 752.101 396

Well respected Between 1.039 1 1.039 0.540 0.463
 Within 760.316 395 1.925
 Total 761.355 396

Security ** Between 8.523 1 8.523 4.691 0.031
 Within 717.568 395 1.817
 Total 726.091 396

Self respect ** Between 8.386 1 8.386 6.648 0.010
 Within 496.968 394 1.261
 Total 505.354 395

Fun and enjoyment Between 0.526 1 0.526 0.247 0.620
 Within 841.017 394 2.135
 Total 841.543 395

Accomplishment ** Between 8.521 1 8.521 7.314 0.007
 Within 460.179 395 1.165
 Total 468.700 396

Key: * = Greater importance among Anglo students.

** = Greater importance among Navajo students.

Table 3. Level of Importance Attached to List of Values Elements:
ANOVA Results: Anglo men and Anglo women

List of Values Source SS Df MS F p<

Self-fulfillment * Between 5.045 1 5.045 3.682 0.056
 Within 332.938 243 1.370
 Total 337.984 244

Belonging * Between 9.335 1 9.335 4.133 0.043
 Within 547.805 242 2.264
 Total 557.16 243

Warm Between 20.379 1 20.379 14.13 0.000
relationships * Within 350.421 243 1.442
 Total 370.8 244

Well respected * Between 10.280 1 10.28 6.157 0.014
 Within 405.72 243 1.670
 Total 416.000 244

Security * Between 14.106 1 14.106 8.941 0.003
 Within 383.363 243 1.578
 Total 397.469 244

Self respect * Between 5.655 1 5.655 4.394 0.037
 Within 312.769 243 1.287
 Total 318.424 244

Fun and enjoyment Between 1.950 1 1.950 1.148 0.285
 Within 410.968 242 1.698
 Total 412.918 243

Accomplishment Between 3.658 1 3.658 3.204 0.075
 Within 277.468 243 1.142
 Total 281.127 244

Key:

* = Greater importance among Anglo women.

Table 4. Level of Importance Attached to List of Values Elements:
ANOVA Results: Navajo men and Navajo women

List of Values Source SS Df MS F p<

Self-fulfillment Between 0.247 1 0.247 0.151 0.698
 Within 242.126 148 1.636
 Total 242.373 149

Belonging Between 3.421 1 3.421 0.916 0.340
 Within 560.204 150 3.735
 Total 563.625 151

Warm relationships Between 1.000 1 1.000 0.403 0.526
 Within 372.204 150 2.481
 Total 373.204 151

Well respected Between 2.237 1 2.237 0.981 0.324
 Within 342.079 150 2.281
 Total 344.316 151

Security Between 5.335 1 5.335 2.543 0.113
 Within 314.763 150 2.098
 Total 320.099 151

Self respect Between 0.000 1 0.000 0.000 0.999
 Within 178.543 149 1.198
 Total 178.543 150

Fun and enjoyment Between 4.974 1 4.974 1.763 0.186
 Within 423.125 150 2.821
 Total 428.099 151

Accomplishment Between 0.009 1 0.009 0.008 0.929
 Within 179.043 150 1.194
 Total 179.053 151

Note: No significant differences were found between Navajo men and
women