Group Influences on Eating and Dieting Behaviors in Male and Female Varsity Athletes.

Hausenblas, Heather A. ; Carron, Albert V.

The purpose of the study was to identify the influence of the group (i.e., teammates) on an individual member's eating and dieting behaviors. Participants--62 female (M age = 20.56, SD = 1.48) and 69 male (M = 21.43. SD = 2.76) varsity athletes--completed open-ended questions regarding the positive and negative group influences on their eating and dieting behaviors. Results revealed that the majority of the athletes did not perceive the presence of group influence (either positive or negative) on their eating and dieting behaviors. When group influence was perceived to be present, it was generally positive; approximately 30% of the athletes indicated teammates had had a positive influence, while only 10% reported teammates had had a negative influence. Finally, greater pressure was experienced with respect to eating behaviors than for dieting behaviors. lication of the positive and negative group influences on eating and dieting behaviors of athletes are discussed.

Several explanations have been advanced in an attempt to account for why athletes might represent a high-risk group for the development of eating disorders (e.g., sociocultural, Johnson, 1994; intraindividual, Leung, Geller, & Katzman, 1996; sport environment, Leung et al., 1996). In particular, the sport environment explanation postulates that both task (e.g., competitive demands, attempts to achieve a certain weight for optimal performance) and social (e.g., coach and teammate influences) related pressures within the athletic arena may encourage unhealthy eating and weight management behaviors that are concomitant of disordered eating (Duda & Benardot, 1997; Powers & Johnston, 1996; Round Table, 1981; Sossin, Gizis, Marquart, & Sobal, 1997; Taub & Blinde, 1992).

In regard to the social pressures within the sport environment, both anecdotal accounts and research have highlighted the impact that teammates have on an individual's eating and dieting behavior. For example, according to Thompson and Sherman (1993), anecdotal information supports the view that a contagion effect--eating disturbances spreading from one person to another--often operates within athletic teams. Similarly, Squire (1983, in Crandall, 1988) reported the case of a cheerleader who stated that "everyone on the squad binges and vomits. That's how I learned" (p.48). The cheerleader believed this behavior was appalling, except prior to competition, because "everybody does it then, so it doesn't seem like the same thing" (p. 48).

Research has documented that participation in team sports can contribute to the development of disordered eating through teammates' encouragement to engage in pathogenic weight-loss methods, such as the use of laxatives, diet pills, diuretics, and/or engaging in self-induced vomiting (Rosen, McKeag, Hough, & Curley, 1986). Similarly, competition between teammates to lose weight and the reinforcement of pathological eating behaviors have been identified as potential factors affecting the onset of disordered eating (Chopak & Taylor-Nicholson, 1991). Williamson et al. (1995) found that eating disorder correlates in female varsity athletes were influenced by the interaction of perceived social pressures from teammates regarding body weight or size, performance anxiety, and negative self-appraisal of athletic achievement.

Although research, in general, investigating the group's influence on eating and dieting behaviors has concentrated on the negative impact of the group (e.g., Crandall, 1988; Pike, 1995), there is evidence to support the view that group influences could also be constructive (e.g., discouraging pathological eating behaviors; Wertheim, Paxton, Schutz, & Muir, 1997). Thus, it is possible that teammates can have positive and/or negative influences on the eating and dieting behaviors of individual athletes. The present study explored this possibility by examining the nature of both positive and negative group influences on individual athlete's eating and dieting behaviors.

Research and popular discussion on group influences on eating and dieting behaviors have focused exclusively on females. As a consequence, Andersen (1995) proposed that within male populations, one of the most interesting and unexplained issues in the etiology and maintenance of eating disorder symptomology are sociocultural factors. Thus, the present study expanded upon previous research by examining the group influence on individual member's eating and dieting behaviors for both male and female athletes.

In summary, there were two purposes in the present study. The first purpose was to identify the specific areas in which the group (represented by members of an athletic team) was perceived to influence the eating and dieting behaviors of individual members. The second purpose was to examine the group influence on individual member's eating and dieting behaviors for both male and female athletes. Due to the exploratory nature of the study no a priori hypotheses were advanced.

Method

Participants

Participants were 131 volunteer female (age M = 20.56, SD = 1.48) and male varsity athletes (age M = 21.43, SD = 2.76) competing on a variety of team sports from a large university in southern Ontario. The female athletes (n = 62) were participants in the following sports: rugby (n = 12), synchronized swimming (n = 9), figure skating (n = 11), track and field (n = 20), and volleyball (n = 10). The male athletes (n = 69) were participants in the following sports: volleyball (n = 10), wrestling (n = 14), hockey (n = 16), and track and field (n = 29). A diverse sample of athletes was used (i.e., athletes from a variety of sports) in order to increase the generalizability of the results.

Measures

Group influence on eating and dieting behaviors. The influence that the group may exert on its individual members could vary dramatically. As was pointed out above, for the present sample, for example, it was conceivable that the team's influence could be positive (e.g., eat nutritious food before a competition) and/or negative (e.g., eat junk food on road trips). Consequently, experimenter-generated scenarios might not be equally salient for all individuals. Therefore, in order to examine the team's influence on eating and dieting behaviors (i.e., both positive and negative) an open-ended approach was used. This procedure ensured that the athletes were active agents in the study, and, thus, eliminated the experimenter-demand characteristics that may have occurred if a list of pre-determined group influences to eating and dieting behaviors were given. To this end, participants were provided with the following question which required a yes or no response: "Have the members of your team ever had a positive inf luence on your eating behaviors"? Those participants who responded "yes" were then asked to respond to the following: "In the 5 blank spaces provided, indicate the positive influences members of your team have had on your eating and dieting behaviors". The identical protocol was used to determine the team's influence on negative eating and dieting behaviors. That is, the participants were asked (a) if their teammates had had a negative influence on their eating behaviors, and (b) to list the nature of the influence(s).

Procedure

Contact was made with the coaches to obtain permission to test the athletes. Once permission was obtained, the experimenter attended regularly scheduled athletic practices near the end of the competitive season (i.e., after the athletes had competed and practiced together for approximately seven months and strong group ties had had time to develop). The participants were told that they were partaking in a research study whose purpose was to assess both team relationships and eating habits. Once informed consent was obtained and confidentiality was assured, the participants completed the questionnaires anonymously and returned them directly to the experimenter. The questionnaire took approximately 15 minutes to complete. A response rate of 100% was obtained.

Data Analysis

A qualitative analysis paradigm was used to examine the nature of the open-ended responses (Patton, 1990). First, all open-ended responses of the participants were transcribed onto index cards. The positive and negative responses were then analyzed separately across male and female athletes. Second, the investigator and two colleagues (who had research backgrounds in group dynamics) read and reread the index cards for the purpose of identifying common themes. Third, each researcher independently identified and labeled raw data themes that characterized clusters of similar group influences. The researchers then discussed the raw data themes in order to achieve a consensus. Fourth, the raw data themes were placed into levels of higher order themes and labeled. Finally, the process was repeated to determine if the categorization made conceptual sense and the process was reliable (i.e., the same convergent categorization occurred).

Results

Results revealed that 22 (35.48%) of the female athletes and 20 (28.98%) of the male athletes reported that the group had a positive influence on their eating and dieting behaviors. In comparison, 7 (11.29%) of the female athletes and 6 (8.69%) of the male athletes reported that the group had a negative influence on their eating and dieting behaviors. As was pointed out in the Method section, it was possible for the athletes to list up to 5 positive and/or 5 negative group influences that the group had on their eating and dieting behaviors. The 22 female athletes who stated that the group had had a positive influence on their eating and dieting behaviors reported a total of 54 group influences (average 2.45 influences per person). The 20 male athletes who stated that the group had had a positive influence on their eating and dieting behavior reported a total of 40 group influences (an average of 2.00 influences per person). In comparison, the 7 female athletes who stated that the group had had a negative inf luence on their eating and dieting behaviors reported a total of 12 group influences (average 1.71 influences per person). And finally, the 6 male athletes who stated that the group had had a negative influence on their eating and dieting behavior reported a total of 15 group influences (an average of 2.50 influences per person).

The qualitative protocol revealed that the positive and negative group influences listed by the athletes fell within six raw data themes. That is, teammates were reported to have had an influence on (a) the quality of food ingested, (b) the quantity of food ingested, (c) routines or habits associated with eating, (d) psychological concerns surrounding eating, (e) weight and body shape consequences of dieting, and (f) the use of exercise for weight control. These six themes were categorized into two first order themes: eating behaviors which included quality of food, quantity of food, routine or habit, and psychological concerns; and dieting behaviors which included weight and body shape and exercise. A summary of the frequency of the raw and first order themes for the positive and negative group influence for the male and female athletes are presented in Table 1.

An analysis of the data for the first order themes revealed that both the male and female athletes reported more positive group influences on their eating (female = 88.9%; male = 90.0%) compared to dieting behaviors (female = 11.1%; male = 10.0%). A similar pattern was found for negative group influences; both the female and male athletes reported more negative group influences on their eating behaviors (female = 100%; male = 93.3%) than on their dieting behaviors (female = 0%; male = 6.7%). In short, teammates appear to have a much greater influence on the eating behaviors of athletes than on their dieting behaviors.

The most frequently cited positive influence for females was quality of food (68.5%; e.g., eat fruit and vegetables). This was followed by quantity of food (13.0%; e.g., encourage me to eat more), weight and body shape (7.4%; e.g., support me in losing weight), routine or habit (3.7%; e.g., good eating habits), psychological (3.7%; e.g., teammates help me to not feel guilty about eating), and exercise (3.7%; e.g., work out together).

For the male athletes the most frequently listed positive group influence was quality of food (52.5%; e.g., teammates encourage eating healthy foods). This was followed by routine or habits (25.0%; e.g., we all eat at certain times before a match), quantity of food (12.5%; e.g., teammates acknowledge how much I eat), and weight and body shape (10.0%; e.g., encourage me to diet). As Table 1 shows, the male athletes did not report any positive group influences within the psychological and exercise categories.

The most frequently cited negative group influences for females was quality of food (41.7%; e.g., we eat junk food together) and quantity of food (41.7%; eat too much). This was following by routine or habit (16.7%; e.g., going out to eat during meets). The female athletes did not report any negative group influences within the psychological, weight and body shape, or exercise categories.

A similar pattern was observed for the male athletes. The most frequently cited negative influence was quality of food (66.7%; e.g., encourage eating less healthy). This was followed by quantity of food (20.0%; e.g., encourage excessive eating), routine or habit (6.7%) and weight and body shape (6.7%). The male athletes did not report any negative group influences within the psychological and exercise categories.

Discussion

The results of the present study provide several noteworthy findings regarding the influence of the group (i.e., teammate) on the eating and dieting behaviors of male and female athletes. First, approximately 30% of the female (35.48%) and male (28.98%) athletes reported that the group had had a positive influence on their eating and dieting behaviors. In comparison, approximately 10% of the female (11.29%) and male (8.69%) athletes reported that the group had had a negative influence on their eating and dieting behaviors. Thus, (a) only a small proportion of athletes experience group influences pertaining to eating and dieting, and for those that did, (b) that influence is three times as likely to be positive. Thus, while research provides some support for the suggestion that the group can have a negative influence on eating and dieting behaviors (Pike, 1995), the current results highlight the fact that the group can also have a positive influence (Wertheim et al., 1997).

Second, the group's influence was related more to eating behaviors (e.g., quality of food and quantity of food) than dieting behaviors (e.g., weight and body shape considerations) for both the male and female athletes. This is consistent with other research findings, that among friends there is little direct encouragement to diet or comment on body shape and size (Nichter & Vuckovic, 1994). It should be noted, however, that although teammates do not directly encourage each other to diet, they may inadvertently do so through role modeling and competition (Paxton et al., 1991). Additional research is needed to examine this possibility.

Furthermore, since preoccupation with weight and dieting reflects a "normative discontent" (French, Perry, Leon, & Fulkerson, 1995)--especially in women--future research investigating other social-related pressures (i.e., coaches, trainers, parents) that could influence an athlete's eating and dieting attitudes and behaviors is encouraged. Recent studies by Duda and her colleagues have found that an ego-involved motivational climate created by coaches and parents can have negative influences on athletes' body image and weight concerns (Duda & Benardot, 1997; Duda & Kim, 1997). Additional research is needed to examine the influence that the motivational climate created by teammates may have on individual member's body image and weight concerns.

A third noteworthy finding was that the negative group influence on eating and dieting behaviors were not pathological in nature (e.g., introducing purging methods, contagion effect). That is, the negative group influence on eating and dieting behaviors including such responses as eating junk food and snacking more often. In short, the present results failed to support the suggestion that a contagion effect (i.e., eating disturbances spread from one person to another) operates within athletic teams (Thompson & Sherman, 1993). A note of caution is important, however. It is possible that the participants in the present study were engaging in pathogenic weight control methods--but that the group did not influence the use of these harmful dieting techniques.

These results have potential implications for the promotion of positive eating and dieting behaviors since athletic teams may provide an ideal environment in which to implement strategies revolving around group support. For example, Paxton (1996) has suggested that if members of friendship groups could be brought together to explore healthy approaches to eating and their bodies, the resulting programs would be powerful agents in bringing about both individual and subcultural changes. Since athletic team members spend a considerable amount of time together, their behaviors and attitudes can influence one another. Thus, education at the group level (i.e., team) could serve to highlight the positive influences that teammates can have on individual athlete's eating and dieting behaviors and encourage positive group norms to develop. Furthermore, ways to resist negative group influences on eating and dieting behaviors could be explored.

In conclusion, Crandall (1988) has stated that social factors (i.e., group influences) remain far too unexamined in regards to eating and dieting behaviors. Results of the present study revealed that the majority of the athletes did not perceive the presence of group influence (either positive or negative), and when group influence was perceived to be present, it was generally positive. Due to the potentially powerful influence that the group can exert and the exploratory nature of the study, future researchers are encouraged to further examine social pressures (e.g., teammates, coaches, parents) and the potential influence they may exert (positive or negative) on the eating and dieting behaviors of athletes.

The first author would like to gratefully acknowledge the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada for its support through a doctoral fellowship.

References

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 The Total Number of Positive and Negative Group
 Influences on Eating and Dieting Behaviors
 Reported by the Male and Female Athletes
 Positive Influence Negative Influence
 Female Male Female
 n=22 n=20 n=7
Eating Behaviors
 Quality of Food 37 (68.5) 2 (52.5) 5 (41.7)
 Quantity of Food 7 (13.0) 5 (12.5) 5 (41.7)
 Routine or Habit 2 (3.7) 10 (25.0) 2 (16.7)
 Psychological 2 (3.7) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0)
Dieting Behaviors
 Weight and Body Shape 4 (7.4) 4 (10.0) 0 (0.0)
 Exercise 2 (3.7) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0)
Total 54 40 12
 Male
 n=6
Eating Behaviors
 Quality of Food 10 (66.7)
 Quantity of Food 3 (20.0)
 Routine or Habit 1 (6.7)
 Psychological 0 (0.0)
Dieting Behaviors
 Weight and Body Shape 1 (6.7)
 Exercise 0 (0.0)
Total 15
Note. () = percentage; n = number of athletes
reporting a group influence.