Female and male sport fans: A comparison of sport consumption motives.

James, Jeffrey D. ; Ridinger, Lynn L.

Sport spectating represents a predominant form of leisure behavior in today's society. Large numbers of people attend sporting events and think of themselves as sport fans. Attendance figures reported in nationally syndicated newspapers indicated that the combined attendance at National Football League (NFL), Major League Baseball (MLB), National Basketball Association (NBA), and National Hockey League (NHL) regular season games in 1999, exceeded 116 million. A national survey asking people how interested they were in sports found an increase in the fan base of all twelve major sports measured (Frank, 2000). For example, 67% of the U.S. population were estimated to be fans of the NFL; 54% reported being fans of the NBA, and 35% were fans of the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA) (Frank, 2000). Continued interest in following and watching sports is evidenced by the growth of the major professional sport leagues in the North America, and by the emergence of new teams and leagues, particularly for wo men's sports. Recent years have seen the development of new women's leagues including the WNBA and the Women's United Soccer Association (WUSA).

While it has been suggested that little is known about sports fans (Russell, 1993), and that few scholarly articles have examined sport fans (Wann & Hamlet, 1995), Quick (2000) noted that a substantial amount of research has been conducted. Research to date has come in large part from a sport marketing perspective and focused on the demographic characteristics of fans in an effort to understand reasons for attendance (e.g., Ashley & Song, 1995; Hansen & Gauthier, 1994). Another body of work has focused on the behaviors of sport fans relative to their identification with a sport or team (e.g., Murrell & Dietz, 1992; Wann & Dolan, 1994; Wann & Branscombe, 1995).

Research on Sport Fans

Prior research pertaining to sport marketing has centered principally on the topic of sport demand and has examined the effect of economic factors, promotions, and residual preference factors (e.g., scheduling of games, new arenas, accessibility) on attendance at sporting events, and the relationship between sociodemographic variables and watching sports (Baade & Tiehen, 1990; Greenstein & Marcum, 1981; Hansen & Gauthier, 1989; Schofield, 1983; Zhang, Smith, Pease & Jambor, 1997). This work has been important in helping sport marketers profile consumer segments and develop promotional strategies, but has provided little insight on the reasons why people watch and follow sports.

Research examining the behavior of sport fans relative to identification with a sport or team has found that those with a strong sport or team identification attend more games and predict more future success for their team (Murrell & Dietz, 1992; Wann & Dolan, 1994), are more knowledgeable about the team's players and history (Wann & Branscombe, 1995), and are persistent in their commitment to a team (Dietz-Uhler & Murrell, 1999; Wann & Schrader, 1996). This work has contributed to our understanding of how identification with a sport or team moderates perceptions and attributions relative to a favorite team, but has provided little insight into reasons why people watch and follow sports.

Reasons for Watching and Following Sports

There is a growing body of research that has examined the reasons people watch and follow sports (Kahle, Kambara, & Rose, 1996; Kolbe & James, 2000; Milne & McDonald, 1999; Trail & James, 2001; Wann, 1995). Much of the work has focused on identifying the reasons (motives) thought to influence an individual's general interest in sports and developing instruments to measure the motives of sport fans. Wann (1995), Kahle, Kambara, and Rose (1996), Milne and McDonald (1999) and Trail and James (2001) developed scales to measure the underlying motivations of sports fans. Wann (1995) developed the Sport Fan Motivation Scale (SFMS) based on the existing conceptual literature within sport sociology (Sloan, 1989; Zillmann, Bryant, & Sapolsky, 1989; Zillmann & Paulus, 1993). Milne and McDonald developed an instrument to measure spectator and participant motives based on the work of Sloan (1989) and Maslow (1943), and Kahle et al. proposed a scale based on Kelman's (1958) functional theory of attitudinal influence. These efforts contributed to our understanding of sport consumer motives, but an examination of the three scales revealed various psychometric limitations (Trail & James, 2001).

Compared to previous instruments, the Motivation Scale for Sport Consumption (MSSC) has been shown to accurately and reliably measure the motives of sport consumers (Trail & James, 2001). The MSSC was developed from a review of the sport sociology literature (Sloan, 1989; Zillmann et al., 1989; Zillmann & Paulus, 1993) and from an evaluation of the scales proposed by Wann (1995), Milne and McDonald (1999), and Kahle et al. (1996). The MSSC provides an assessment of nine motives: achievement, acquisition of knowledge, aesthetics, drama/eustress, escape, family, physical attractiveness of participants, the quality of the physical skill of the participants, and social interaction.

Across the research that has examined sport fans in general and the emerging work on the motives of sport fans, there has been little attention given to studying the similarities and differences between male and female sport fans. Dietz-Uhler, Harrick, End, and Jacquemotte (2000) noted that females may be just as likely as males to be to sport fans based on the increasing female fan base for professional sports teams, and Frank (2000) reported that there has been an increase in female fans ages 35 and over for twelve major sports. With the increasing female fan base, and the growth of women's professional sports, it is important to examine the similarities and differences between male and female sport fans.

Research on Male and Female Sport Fans

Dietz-Uhler et al. (2000) found that little research has examined the similarities and differences between male and female sport fans. The notable exceptions were the works conducted by Gantz (1981) and Gantz and Wenner (1991, 1995) which focused on the television sports viewing experiences of males and females, and examined television viewing behavior and reasons for watching sports on television. Other works cited by Dietz et al. dealt with media coverage for male and female athletes (Duncan, Messner, & Williams, 1990) and the media portrayal of females in sports (Kane & Greendorfer, 1994).

Earlier work by Armstrong (1999) examined the profile of consumers for a professional women's basketball team and found that females made up 70% of those attending games. The only assessment of gender similarities and differences by Armstrong dealt with factors influencing attendance. The most influential reason for attending a game for females and males was being a fan of women's basketball; females also reported that they attended games to see specific players, while males reported attending to be entertained and to share the experience with their family. It is unclear, however, why the particular factors thought to influence attendance were chosen, or where the items came from.

Dietz-Uhler et al. (2000) examined whether males and females were equally likely to be sport fans, whether males would be more likely than females to engage in traditional, masculine sport behavior, and if reasons for being a sport fan differed for males and females. Results indicated that males and females were equally likely to report being sport fans, that males spent more time discussing sports with someone, watching sports on television, had a greater interest in sports, and possessed more knowledge of sports. One exception to the behavioral differences was that males and females reported spending equal amounts of time attending sporting events. An open-ended question was used to ascertain reasons for being a sports fan. Findings suggested that females seemed more likely to be a sport fan for social reasons, which included attending games, enjoyment of cheering, and enjoying watching sports with friends and family. Males reported being a sports fan because they played sports, enjoyed sports in general, a nd enjoyed learning about sports.

The findings reported by Dietz-Uhler et al. (2000) provide some insight into the similarities and differences between female and male sport fans. At the same time, several questions emerged that bear further investigation. First, as noted by Dietz-Uhler et al. the study did not examine whether males and females were fans of a specific sport, which may be important for determining "the types of sport fan behaviors one exhibits, the type of sport knowledge one possesses, and the motivations for being a fan" (p. 228). Second, with the growth of women's sports it is important to examine the similarities and differences between fans of the same sport played by male versus female athletes to better understand the gendered nature of sports fanship which could prove vital to the continued success of women's sports. The primary purpose of the current study was to extend the study of sport fans by examining whether females and males differed in their motives for being fans of a specific sports team. A secondary purpose of the study was to examine whether the motives of female and male fans of the same sport (college basketball) played by male versus female athletes were similar or different.

Two hypotheses were developed based on the previous research with female and male sport fans:

Hypothesis 1: Female and male consumers will be equally likely to report being sport fans in general and fans of women's or men's basketball teams.

This hypothesis was based on the findings of Dietz-Uhler et al. that females and males were equally likely to report being sport fans.

Hypothesis 2: There will be a significant difference between the motives that influence females and males to be fans of a specific team.

The second hypothesis examined motives from the MSSC (Trail & James, 2001). In terms of specific motives, the preliminary findings of Dietz-Uhler et al. suggest that females would rate social interaction, spending time with family, and aesthetics higher than males. Males were expected to rate achievement, empathy, knowledge, action, drama, and physical skill higher than females based on a greater interest in playing, and learning about sports, and the importance of sport as an identity for males (Dietz-Uhler et al., 2000). It was not clear what difference, if any would be found for escape.

Since the study represented a first attempt to compare the motives of sport fans for men's and women's sports, it was unclear whether there would be differences in the reasons sport fans enjoyed the respective games. Accordingly, a research question was included to guide the comparison of men's and women's basketball.

Method

Research Question 1: Would fans of women's basketball and fans of men's basketball differ in regard to the reasons influencing their enjoyment of the respective sports?

Participants

A two-stage process was used to collect information from people attending women's and men's college basketball games at a large Midwestern university. In the first stage, twelve trained volunteers assigned to different seating sections in the arena randomly collected names and addresses from individuals at two men's and two women's basketball games that expressed a willingness to participate in the study. A list of random numbers was utilized to select row and seat numbers. Following a prepared script, the volunteers approached individuals prior to the beginning of a game, explained the project, and asked if they would be willing to participate. A total of 1200 names and addresses were collected, six hundred from those attending two women's games and 600 from those attending two men's games. The sample size was based on criteria proposed by Krejcie and Morgan (1970).

In stage two, a letter explaining the project and a questionnaire were mailed to those agreeing to participate. The packages were mailed the day after the respective game. Three hundred and eighteen useable surveys were received from those attending the women's games (53% response rate), and 316 useable surveys were received from those attending the men's games (53% response rate).

Procedure

Participants were asked to complete a questionnaire to assess whether they were fans of sport in general and fans of the women's or men's basketball teams specifically, and their reasons for following the respective teams. Individual items were distributed throughout the survey to reduce order and other biases. Those responding were also asked to provide demographic information (age, sex, level of education completed, household income, race, and marital status) so that a profile of people attending men's and women's college basketball games could be developed.

Dietz-Uhler et al. proposed that the definition of a sport fan should be based on an individual's perception of themselves as a sport fan. Participants were asked to rate themselves as fans of sport in general and the respective basketball teams using two nine-point scales (1 = Not a fan at all, 5 = Loyal fan, and 9 Extremely loyal fan). Research has shown that people vary in their level of identification with sport teams (e.g., Wann & Branscombe, 1993, 1995; Warm & Schrader, 1996); it is just as likely that people vary in terms of how strongly they view themselves as fans. The current study sought to ascertain whether there were differences in the degree to which females and males thought of themselves as sport fans.

The current study included eight of the nine factors from the MSSC to assess reasons for being a fan of a specific sports team (see Table 2 for a listing of the factors and individual items). Officials at the university asked that the Physical Attraction items not be used, so this factor was omitted. To better measure the motivations relative to a specific sports team, the wording of the MSSC items was altered to include either the name of the team or the sport (basketball). For example, the first Achievement item, "I feel like I have won when the team wins," was altered to read, "I feel like I have won when the team name win." The first Escape item, "Games provide an escape for me from my day-to-day activities," was changed to, "Basketball games represent an escape for me from my day-to-day activities."

Two additional factors developed by the authors, Empathy and Action, were also included in the questionnaire. The Achievement factor measures whether there is a positive emotional association with a team that wins or does well. If a person is truly a fan and has an emotional connection to a team, research suggests that s/he should feel proud when the team plays well and engage in a BIRGing (basking in reflected glory) process (Cialdini, Borden, Thorne, Walker, Freeman, & Sloan, 1976; Sloan, 1989) as a tactic for enhancing self-esteem. Research has also found that if a person does not have a strong personal connection (identification) with a team, s/he would likely decrease his/her association with a team that performs poorly (Wann, 1993; Wann & Branscombe, 1990). The process of decreasing association is referred to as cutting off reflected failure (CORFing).

If associating with a team is an important motive for enhancing self-esteem, feeling proud when a team plays well only represents one dimension of the mental association. As noted in previous research, individuals with a strong connection to a team do not dissociate themselves when the team plays poorly (Wann, 1993; Wann & Branscombe, 1990); these individuals maintain their association suggesting that they experience some level of frustration, or become upset, when a team plays poorly. Three items were developed by the authors to measure whether an individual shared in the disappointment of a lost or poorly played game (Empathy), to assess more fully enhancement of self-esteem as a sport consumer motive.

The final factor included in the questionnaire was Action, the extent to which an individual consumes a sport because of the action associated with the sport. Drama measures the importance of the suspense and uncertainty of outcome associated with sport. Action was included to measure whether the desire for stimulation was derived from the speed and pace of games, not just the suspense or uncertainty of outcome. The ten factors were each represented by three items; participants rated the items on seven-point scales with 1 representing Strongly Disagree and 7 indicating Strongly Agree.

Results

Participant Characteristics

The individuals recruited from the men's games were primarily male (68%), 50% were between 40 and 59 years old, married (73%), Caucasian (97%), and most respondents were well educated (i.e., 87% had completed at least an undergraduate degree). Those recruited from the women's games were primarily female (58%), 51% were between 40 and 59 years old, married (73%), Caucasian (98%), and well educated (i.e., 80% had completed at least an undergraduate degree).

Overall Difference Tests

A multivariate GLM was used to assess whether there were significant differences between females and males self-report measures of being sport fans in general, fans of the specific basketball teams, motives for following the specific teams, and in motives for following women's versus men's basketball. Results indicated that there were significant differences by sex of respondent ([LAMBDA]=.862, F(13,6l8)=7.605, p<.00l), sport (men's versus women's basketball) ([LAMBDA]=.957, F(l3,618)=2.136, p<.00l), and the interaction of sex of respondent and sport ([LAMBDA]=.963, F(13,618)=l.8l9, p<.05). Specific findings relative to the fan ratings and respondent motives are discussed below. (The univariate F-statistics reported below were generated as part of the MANOVA procedure.)

Sport Fan Ratings

Sports in General. The frequency and percentage of responses for the participants' ratings of themselves as a fan of sports in general are reported in Table 1. The distribution of responses was utilized to characterize participants as not being a fan of sports at all (Not a fan, rating of 1-4), being a loyal sports fan (Loyal fan, rating of 5 or 6), or having a strong loyalty to sports in general (Strong loyalty, rating of 7-9). Females reported that they were fans of sport in general (M=6.46), but males rated themselves more highly as sport fans (M=7.13)(F=22.243, p<.0l). A cross-tabulation of the responses by sex of the participant clarified that a higher percentage of males reported a Strong loyalty to sports while a higher percentage of females reported being a Loyal sport fan or Not a fan at all.

Specific Team. The frequency and percentage of responses for the participants' ratings of themselves as fans of the men's and women's basketball teams are reported in Table 1. The participants were characterized as Not a fan, a Loyal fan, or having Strong loyalty to the respective teams. There was a significant difference in the average rating as a fan of a specific basketball team (F=5.868, p<.05). Males (M=7.27) rated themselves more highly as fans of a specific team relative to females (M=6.92), though both groups reported being fans of the respective teams. Among those attending the men's basketball games, a higher percentage of males reported Strong loyalty while more females reported being Not a fan at all or being a Loyal fan. A similar pattern was found among fans of the women's basketball team with one exception; a higher percentage of males reported that they were not fans of the team.

The findings relative to the sport fan ratings do not support the first hypothesis. Males and females did report being fans of sport in general and of the specific teams, but there was a significant difference between the ratings. It is also important to note that while females reported being fans of sport in general, the percentage of females rating themselves as having Strong loyalty was higher for the specific teams than sports in general. The results suggest that females may think of themselves as fans of specific teams rather than general sports fans.

Sport Fan Motives

Before testing whether there were differences between motives influencing female and male sport fans, a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was computed using the RAMONA Covariance Structure Modeling (CSM) technique (available in the SYSTAT 9.0 (1999) statistical package) to verify the internal consistency and the construct validity of the sport consumption motives. The results of the CFA (reported in Table 2) indicated that nine of the factors showed adequate reliability and validity. Knowledge, Social Interaction, Family, and Drama each had one item that loaded below the recommended .70 level (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). The Cronbach's alpha scores and the average variance extracted for the factors indicated, however, that the dimensions were suitable for measuring the sport consumption motives (see Table 2). The item loadings, Cronbach's alpha scores, and the AVE scores for the Physical Skill factor did not demonstrate acceptable levels of reliability and validity (see Table 2). Consequently, Physical Skill w as not included in the data analysis.

The data from the respondents were analyzed to determine whether there were overall differences between the sex of participants and the sport consumption motives. Results are reported in Table 3. No significant difference was found on the three motives rated the highest by females. The Action in the game of basketball, the opportunity to Escape from one's daily routine, and the Drama of games were the motives rated most highly by females (M=5.87, M=5.70, and M=5.35 respectively). A significant difference was found on five of the motives (Achievement, Aesthetics, Knowledge, Empathy, and Family). The results reported in Table 3 indicate that males (M=5.47) more than females (M=5.30) desired to be associated with a successful team, appreciated the natural beauty in the game of basketball (M=5.55 and M=5.22 respectively), and enjoyed the games in part because of their knowledge of basketball (M=5.35 and M=4.92 respectively). Females (M=3.84) disagreed with the idea that they felt upset when a team lost or played poorly while males (M=4.52) were neutral toward the idea. Both males and females disagreed with the idea that they enjoyed basketball because it provided opportunities to be with family, with females expressing stronger disagreement (M=3.24 and M=3.70 respectively). Social interaction was not an important motive for females or males.

Men's Versus Women's Basketball. Only one significant difference was found among the motives for enjoying men's versus women's basketball. Fans of women's basketball reported that they enjoyed the natural beauty and grace of basketball to a greater extent than fans of men's basketball (M=5.44 and M=5.26 respectively). Enjoyment of the aesthetic value of women's basketball compared to men's basketball was further clarified through the analysis of the sport by sex of participant interaction.

Sport x Sex of Participant. Each of the motives was examined to ascertain whether there was a significant interaction between sport and sex of participant. The only significant interaction found ([LAMBDA]=.963, F(13,618)=1.819, p<.05) was for Aesthetics. Females reported a greater appreciation for the aesthetics of women's basketball games (M=5.37) than the aesthetic value of men's games (M=4.94). There was no difference in the aesthetic appreciation of men's and women's basketball among males. The findings relative to the sport consumption motivations provide partial support for the second hypothesis and also some support for the idea that women's basketball represents a purer or more aesthetically pleasing form of the game, particularly for female basketball fans.

Discussion

The study sought to examine whether females and males were equally likely to be fans of sport in general and fans of specific teams, and to ascertain whether there were similarities and differences among the sport consumption motivations of female and male sport fans. The nine-point scale employed in the current study went beyond comparing the number of respondents and allowed for an assessment of the degree to which females and males thought of themselves as fans. The first hypothesis, proposing that there would be no difference in the sport fan ratings for females and males, was not supported. Females did report being sport fans, consistent with earlier findings, but a higher percentage of males reported a stronger connection to sports in general. Greater similarity was found between females and males relative to being fans of a specific team; females reported a stronger connection to a specific team than to sport in general.

The findings provide support for the idea that while females enjoy sports, males enjoy and also derive an important social identity (Tajfel & Turner, 1986) from sport. The higher ratings on the Achievement (sharing in a team's success), Empathy (feeling the disappointment of a loss or poor play), and Knowledge (wanting to know the technical aspects and strategy of a sport) measures among males suggests that sports do provide an important identity not shared by females. Responses in the current study indicated that females felt some sense of Achievement when the team won or played well, but there was no Empathy with the team, and Knowing the strategy and technical aspects of basketball were not important to females. Future research should examine whether females derive a social identity from being a fan of a specific sport or team.

The second hypothesis proposed that there would be significant differences between the sport consumption motives of female and male sport fans. Males rated each of the motives higher than females, and as expected there was a significant difference relative to Achievement, Empathy, and Knowledge. For the three motives rated most highly by females (Action, Escape, and Drama) there was no significant difference between sport fans. This finding is important because it suggests to providers of sporting events themes upon which to develop promotional campaigns to attract female and male fans. Inconsistent with earlier findings, females did not rate the opportunity to spend time with Family or Social Interaction higher than males. Further, females and males disagreed with the idea that basketball games were good opportunities to spend time with family members.

The study included one research question addressing whether fans of women's basketball and fans of men's basketball would enjoy the respective games for different reasons. It has been proposed that women's sports have a different appeal than men's sports, that women's sports are appealing because they reflect a "purer" form of a game and that women's sports promote finesse and teamwork (particularly women's basketball) (Lopiano, 1997). Among the motives measured, the only significant difference found between enjoyment of men's and women's basketball was with Aesthetics. The aesthetic appeal of women's basketball was rated higher than men's basketball, but only among female fans. Males appreciated the beauty and gracefulness of basketball regardless of whether the athletes were male or female, while females found women's basketball more aesthetically appealing.

One contribution of the current study was distinguishing between being a general sports fan and a fan of a specific team. Females reported being sport fans in general, but the pattern of responses indicated that they had stronger loyalty to a specific team. One implication of this distinction is that the study of sport fans, particularly females, should be conducted relative to specific teams in order to better understand the (a) motives that influence an individual to follow a team, and (b) behaviors of sport fans. As noted by Diezt-Uhler et al., the sport that an individual is a fan of may influence which type of fan behaviors are exhibited.

A second contribution of the study is extending our knowledge of female and male sport fans, especially in the context of women's sports. The study was an initial effort to compare the motives of female and male sport fans, and to compare the motives of fans of a sport played by male and female athletes. It is important to examine the characteristics and motives of female sport fans because they are growing in numbers. It is important to study the differences between men's and women's sports to determine whether people are interested in the respective sports for similar or different reasons.

As with any study, several limitations should be noted. The current study examined fans of one sport, college basketball. The sample did include sport fans in general, but the generalizability of the results beyond college basketball is limited. Additional research should examine other sports to determine whether there are differences in the self-ratings of males and females as fans of different sports and as fans of specific teams for different sports. A second weakness of the study is that it did not include measures of fan behaviors. Future research should include measures of behaviors to ascertain whether there are differences not only between males and females, but also among individuals who rate themselves as loyal fans compared to fans reporting strong loyalty.

The current study was also limited in that it only measured ten motives thought to influence the consumption of sport. Results suggest that the motives which have been empirically tested by previous research, which may be thought of as "traditional" motives, are likely the same for consumer's of men's and women's sports. A key question to address is whether there are other motives that could provide a better understanding of the reasons why people watch and follow sports and specific teams. For example, Armstrong (1999) proposed that supporting women's basketball and watching positive female role models may influence attendance at professional women's basketball games. These ideas could also be examined as reasons for being a fan of women's sports and a fan of a specific team.

Another approach to the study of the sport fans would be to examine sport consumer motives relative to the level of fandom. Melnick (1989) raised the questions, "Why is a sport fan's behavior so frequently unreasonable, extravagant, and intemperate? Why the fanaticism?" (p. 170). Findings from the current study suggest that sport fans consume college basketball because they enjoy the action of games (possibly a type of stress and stimulation seeking) and to escape from the routine of daily activities. The results, however, are based on the overall sample. Future research should examine the motives of sport fans based on the level of fandom to ascertain whether the motives of people that do not regard themselves as fans are similar or different than the motives of loyal fans and individuals that rate themselves as having strong loyalty. Further, are the motives of loyal fans similar or different than those reporting strong loyalty? Research dealing with different levels of fandom could also provide insight int o the intra-personal motives that drive sport consumers to behave in atypical ways (e.g., spending $50 to sit at the top of a stadium in freezing weather to watch one's favorite team, or leaving work dressed in a nice business suit and going to a hockey game wearing a team jersey with one's face painted in team colors). As noted, the current study did not measure behaviors of sport fans; including such measures along with the assessment of sport consumer motives, based on the reported level of fandom, has the potential to broaden our understanding of human motivation.

The results indicated that there are significant differences between the motives of female and male sport fans, and differences in the extent to which females and males think of themselves as sport fans and fans of specific teams. As interest in sport continues to grow, particularly among females, and with the emergence of more women's professional sports, it is important to continue studying why people watch and follow sports, and the behaviors associated with being a loyal sport fan in general or a fan with strong loyalty to specific team.

Table 1

Sport Fan Ratings - Frequency (Percentage)

Sport in General (a) Not a Loyal Strong Total
 fan Fan Loyalty (Mean Rating)

Female 42 79 165 286
 (15%) (27%) (58%) (6.46)
Male 23 70 255 348
 (7%) (20%) (73%) (7.13)
Specific Team
Men's Basketball
Female 11 20 70 101
 (11%) (20%) (70%) (7.02)
Male 12 34 169 215
 (6%) (16%) (78%) (7.26)
Women's Basketball
Female 14 52 119 185
 (8%) (28%) (64%) (6.83)
Male 13 29 91 133
 (10%) (22%) (68%) (7.50)

Note. Not a fan (rating of 1, 2, 3, or 4) Loyal fan (rating of 5 or 6)
Strong loyalty (rating of 7, 8, or 9)

(a)A multivariate GLM indicated that there was a significant difference
between females and males in terms of being sport fans in general and
fans of the specific teams ([LAMBDA]=.862, F(13,618)=7.605, p<.01.
Table 2

Confirmatory Factor Analysis for the Sport Consumer Motivations: Item
Loadings ([beta]), Confidence Intervals (CI), Standard Errors (SE),
t-values (t), Cronbach's Alphas ([alpha]) and Average Variance Explained
(AVE)

Factor and Items (a) [beta] CI SE t

Empathy
When the team name play poorly, .776 .745-.809 .021 37.67
I become irritated.
When the team name don't win, .905 .880-.930 .015 58.92
I get frustrated.
I feel upset when the team name .810 .778-.841 .019 42.65
lose.
Aesthetics
There is a certain natural beauty .829 .798-.860 .019 44.34
to the game of basketball.
I appreciate the beauty inherent in .864 .835-.892 .017 49.91
the game of basketball.
I enjoy the gracefulness associated .745 .708-.782 .023 32.83
with the sport of basketball.
Achievement
I feel like I have won when .778 .739-.816 .023 33.50
the team name win.
I feel a personal sense of .768 .729-.807 .024 32.54
achievement when the team does
well.
I feel proud when the team name .765 .726-.804 .024 32.23
play well.
Escape
Basketball games provide an escape .751 .709-.792 .025 29.82
for me from my day-to-day
activities.
The basketball games provide a .756 .715-.797 .025 30.24
change of pace from what I
regularly do.
Team name basketball games give me .789 .750-.828 .024 33.20
a break from my normal routine.
Action
The continuous action is what I .700 .655-.744 .027 25.89
enjoy the most about basketball.
I like that basketball is a fast- .807 .770-.844 .022 35.91
paced game.
I enjoy seeing a fast-paced game. .727 .685-.769 .026 28.22
Knowledge
I like to know the technical aspects .787 .745-. 829 .027 30.84
of basketball so I can appreciate
the game.
I like to know the rules of .728 .683-.774 .022 26.52
basketball so I can enjoy the game.
I enjoy the game because I .681 .632-.729 .029 23.22
understand the strategy involved in
basketball.
Social Interaction
Interacting with other team name .638 .586-.690 .032 20.18
basketball fans is an important
part of being at a game.
team name basketball games are .707 .658-.755 .029 24.02
great opportunities to socialize
with other people.
I like to talk with other people .831 .787-.875 .027 31.12
sitting near me at basketball
games.
Family
The game provides an opportunity .905 .851-.958 .033 27.75
for me to spend time with my
family.
The game provides an opportunity .700 .646-.754 .033 21.45
for me to spend time with my
children.
The game provides me an opportunity .561 .503-.618 .035 16.00
to spend time with my spouse.

Factor and Items (a) [alpha] AVE

Empathy .86 .69
When the team name play poorly,
I become irritated.
When the team name don't win,
I get frustrated.
I feel upset when the team name
lose.
Aesthetics .85 .66
There is a certain natural beauty
to the game of basketball.
I appreciate the beauty inherent in
the game of basketball.
I enjoy the gracefulness associated
with the sport of basketball.
Achievement .82 .59
I feel like I have won when
the team name win.
I feel a personal sense of
achievement when the team does
well.
I feel proud when the team name
play well.
Escape .84 .59
Basketball games provide an escape
for me from my day-to-day
activities.
The basketball games provide a
change of pace from what I
regularly do.
Team name basketball games give me
a break from my normal routine.
Action .76 .56
The continuous action is what I
enjoy the most about basketball.
I like that basketball is a fast-
paced game.
I enjoy seeing a fast-paced game.
Knowledge .78 .54
I like to know the technical aspects
of basketball so I can appreciate
the game.
I like to know the rules of
basketball so I can enjoy the game.
I enjoy the game because I
understand the strategy involved in
basketball.
Social Interaction .77 .53
Interacting with other team name
basketball fans is an important
part of being at a game.
team name basketball games are
great opportunities to socialize
with other people.
I like to talk with other people
sitting near me at basketball
games.
Family .75 .52
The game provides an opportunity
for me to spend time with my
family.
The game provides an opportunity
for me to spend time with my
children.
The game provides me an opportunity
to spend time with my spouse.
Table 3

A Comparison of Sport Consumption Motives by Sex of Participant: Means
(Standard Deviations), F-statistics, and p-value.

 Sex of Participant
 Total F
Dimensions (a) Sample Female Male Statistic (b)

Action 5.87 5.88 5.87 .055
 (1.12) (.793) (.826)
Escape 5.67 5.64 5.70 .302
 (1.04) (1.04) (1.04)
Drama 5.35 5.31 5.37 .237
 (1.02) (1.04) (.996)
Achievement 5.39 5.30 5.47 3.958
 (1.12) (1.08) (1.16)
Aesthetics 5.40 5.22 5.55 19.837
 (1.07) (1.16) (.965)
Knowledge 5.15 4.92 5.35 34.092
 (.975) (1.01) (.904)
Social Interaction 4.74 4.69 4.78 1.069
 (1.15) (1.15) (1.16)
Empathy 4.21 3.84 4.52 29.975
 (1.46) (1.48) (1.37)
Family 3.49 3.24 3.70 6.985
 (2.18) (2.25) (2.11)


 p
Dimensions (a) value

Action n.s.

Escape n.s.

Drama n.s.

Achievement <.05

Aesthetics <.01

Knowledge <.01

Social Interaction n.s.

Empathy <.01

Family <.01


Note. (a)1 = Strongly Disagree; 7 = Strongly Agree

(b) A multivariate GLM was utilized to assess the difference between sex
of the participant and the sport consunption motives (F = 7.605,
p<.001). The univariate F-statistics reported in the table were produced
by the MANOVA.

References

Armstrong, K. L. (1999). A quest for a market: A profile of the consumers of a professional women's basketball team and the marketing implications. Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal, 8(2), 103-127.

Ashley, F., & Song, C. (1995). Marketing the auto race: What can we learn from spectators. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 4, 3.

Baade, R. A., & Tiehan, L. J. (1990). An analysis of major league baseball attendance: 1969-1987. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 14, 14-32.

Cialdini, R.B., Borden, R.J., Thorne, A., Walker, M.R., Freeman, S., & Sloan, L. R. (1976). Basking in reflected glory: Three (football) field studies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 366-375.

Dietz-Uhler, B., Harrick, E. A., End, C., & Jacquemotte, L. (2000). Sex differences in sport fan behavior and reasons for being a sport fan. Journal of Sport Behavior. 23(3), 219-231.

Dietz-Uhler, B., & Murrell, A. (1999). Examining fan reactions to game outcomes: A longitudinal study of social identity. Journal of Sport Behavior, 22, 15-27.

Duncan, M. C., Messner, M., & Williams, L. (1990). Gender stereotyping in televised sports. Los Angeles, CA: Amateur Athletic Foundation of Los Angeles.

Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18,39-50.

Frank, M. (2000, August 21-27). Fan interest rebounds sharply. Street & Smith's SportsBusiness Journal, 3(18), p. 41 & 47.

Gantz, W. (1981). An exploration of viewing motives and behaviors associated with television sports. Journal of Broadcasting, 25, 263-275.

Gantz, W., & Wenner, L. A. (1991). Men, women, and sports: Audience experiences and effects. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 3S, 233-243.

Gantz, W., & Wenner, L. A. (1995). Fanship and television sports viewing experience. Sociology of Sport Journal, 12, 56-74.

Greenstein, T. N. & Marcum, J. P. (1981). Factors affecting attendance of major league baseball: Team performance. Review of Sport and Leisure, 6(2), 21-34.

Hansen, H. & Gauthier, R. (1989). Factors affecting attendance at professional sport events. Journal of Sport Management, 3, 15-32.

Hansen, H., & Gauthier, R. (1994). The professional golf product: Spectators' views. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 3, 4.

Kahle, L. R., Kambara, K. M. & Rose, G.M. (1996). A functional model of fan attendance motivations for college football. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 5(4), 51-60.

Kane, M. J., & Greendorfer, S.L. (1994). The media's role in accommodating and resisting stereotype images of women in sport. In P.J. Greedon (Ed.), Women, media, and sport (pp. 2844). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Kelman, H.C. (1958). Compliance, identification, and internalization: Three processes of attitude change. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 2, 51-60.

Kolbe, R. H., and James, J.D. (2000). An identification and examination of influences that shape the creation of a professional team fan. International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship, 3,23-37.

Krejcie, R. V., & Morgan, D. W. (1970). Determining sample size for research activities. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 30, 607-610.

Lopiano, D. (1997). Tomorrow in women sports; Now is just the tip of the iceberg. Paper presented at the Women's Sports Foundation Summit. Bloomingdale, IL.

Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, SO, 370-396.

Melnick, M.J. (1989). The sports fan: A teaching guide and bibliography. Sociology of Sport Journal, 6, 167-175.

Milne, G. R., & McDonald, M. A. (1999). Sport marketing: Managing the exchange process. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers.

Murrell, A. J., & Dietz, B. (1992). Fan support of sports and team. The effect of common group identity. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 14, 29-39.

Quick, S. (2000). Contemporary sport consumers: Some implications of linking fan typology with key spectator variables. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 9(3), 149-156.

Russell, G. W. (1993). The social psychology of sport. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag

Schofield, J. A. (1983). Performance and attendance at professional team sports. Journal of Sport Behavior, 6, 196.

Sloan, L. R. (1989). The motives of sports fans. In J.H. Goldstein (Ed.), Sports, games, and play: Social and psychological viewpoints (2nd ed., pp. 175-240). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In S. Worchel & W. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (2nd ed., pp. 7-24). Chicago, IL: Nelson-Hall.

Trail, G. T., Fink, J., Anderson, D. F. (2000). A theoretical model of sport spectator consumption behavior. International Journal of Sport Management, 3, 154-180.

Trail, G., & James, J. (200). An analysis of the sport fan motivation scale. Journal of Sport Behavior, 24. 108-127.

Wann, D.L. (1993). Aggression among highly identified spectators as a function of their need to maintain positive social identity. Journal of Sport & Social Issues, 17, 134-143.

Wann, D. L. (1995). Preliminary motivation of the sport fan motivation scale. Journal of Sport & Social Issues, 19, 377-396.

Wann, D.L, & Branscombe, N.R. (1990). Die-hard and fair-weather fans: Effects of identification on BIRGing and CORFing tendencies. Journal of Sport & Social Issues, 14, 103-117.

Wann, D. L., & Branscombe, N. R. (1993). Sports fans: Measuring degree of identification with their team. International Journal of Sport Psychology 24. 1-17.

Wann, D. L., & Branscombe, N. R. (1995). Influence of identification with a sports team on objective knowledge and subjective beliefs. International Journal of Sport Psychology 26(4), 551-567.

Wann, D. L., & Dolan, T. J. (1994). Attributions of highly identified sports spectators. Journal of Social Psychology, 134(6), 783-792.

Wann, D. L., & Hamlet, M. A. (1995). Author and subject gender in sports research. International Journal of Sport Psychology 26, 225-232.

Wann, D. L., & Schrader, M. P. (1996). An analysis of the stability of sport team identification. Perceptual Motor Skills, 82, 322.

Zhang, J.J., Smith, D.W., Pease, D.G., & Jambor, E.A. (1997). Negative influence of market competitors on the attendance of professional sport games: the case of a minor league hockey team. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 6(3), 34-40.

Zillmann, D., Bryant, J., & Sapolsky, B. S. (1989). The enjoyment of watching sports contests. In J. G. Goldstein (Ed.), Sports, games, and play: Social and psychological viewpoints (2nd ed., pp. 241-278). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Zillman, D., & Paulus, P. B., (1993). Spectators: Reactions to sports events and effects on athletic performance. In R. N. Singer, M. Murphey, & L. Tennant (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Sports Psychology, (pp.600-610). New York, NY: MacMillan.

Address Correspondence To: Jeffrey James, Department of Leisure Studies, University of Illinois, 104 Huff Hall M/C-584, 1206 S. 4th St., Champaign, Illinois 61820. E-mail:[email protected]. Fax: (217) 244-1935.