Work addiction among intercollegiate sports coaches.

Lumpkin, Kelly ; Anshel, Mark H.

Work addiction, also called workaholism, is a condition in which the person, called a "workaholic," feels driven or compelled to work. Robinson (1998) defines workaholism as an "obsessive/compulsive disorder that manifests itself through self-imposed demands, an inability to regulate work habits, and overindulgence in work to the exclusion of most other life activities" (p. 7). The explanation for this incessant behavior is not because of external demands or pleasure in work, but because of inner pressures that make the person distressed or guilty about not working (Spence & Robbins, 1992). The reason a person's attitude about his or her work plays such an important role in determining work addiction is because workaholics tend to think about work even when they are not actually working; work is an obsession. This explanation lends credence to Machlowitz's (1980) claim that workaholism is an attitude towards working, rather than the number of hours worked, although Harpaz and Snir (2003) describe workaholics as persons who work more than 50 hours a week. The related literature is unequivocal, however, that workaholism is characterized as the absence of proper work/life balance (Burke, 2000).

According to Spence and Robbins (1992), workaholics display selected behavioral and thought patterns. These include engaging in work-related activities in place of personal time for leisure and relaxation, relationships with family members, and social activities. In addition, workaholics experience more stress, lower morale, and higher likelihood of burnout than their non-addicted counterparts. Work addiction, therefore, is a psychological condition that is typically viewed by clinical psychologists as undesirable, inefficient, dysfunctional (Burke, 2001), and usually psychopathological (Robinson, 2007).

Similar to other addictions, the work addicted individual is not usually aware of the negative consequences of this condition. This is because workaholics are so self-absorbed in their careers that they rarely notice their reduced ability to function productively; they are perfectionists and are often unable to delegate work tasks (Bonebright, Clay, & Ankenmann, 2000). Often, as a result, the work addict suffers from increased anxiety and depression, while often ignoring physical symptoms of illness or disease (Robinson, 2000). Work addiction has potentially serious consequences.

Rather than improving organizational and personal productivity work addicted employees may be more detrimental to their organizations than they are helpful. Between 1982 and 1990, for instance, workers' compensation claims increased by $37 million. This condition is partly attributed to increases in psychological and mental stress claims from overworked employees (Bordwin, 1996). Work addiction can also lead to death. The Japanese, for instance, have a term--karoshi--that defines the most serious consequence of work addiction, literally defined as "death from overwork" (Loehr & Schwartz, 2003, p. 41).

Robinson (1998, 2000) lists the following characteristics of workaholics: (1) are usually rushed for time and "hyper-busy," often multitasking; (2) have trouble delegating, primarily because they have a need for control; (3) are perfectionists; (4) minimize the importance of relationships with others; (5) have a need to overachieve; (6) are restless and lack fun in their lives; (7) are impatient and irritable; (8) judge themselves based on their last achievement; (9) experience memory loss of long conversations; and (10) have little time for self-care.

The work addiction literature includes different conceptual frameworks and typologies which are important to briefly review in attempting to explain whether a particular behavior pattern is or is not work addiction. One conceptual framework that describes a person's addiction to their work is called the workaholic triad (Spence & Robbins, 1992). The work triad consists of three independent components, the degree of work involvement, level of "driveness," and enjoyment of work. Spence and Robbins describe the workaholic as a person who is highly work-involved, driven, and lacks work enjoyment. In fact, Robinson (2000) contends that workaholics are not necessarily high-level performers. This is partly due, he surmises, to their fear of failure, failure to learn from mistakes, and inability to work well with others.

Robinson (2000) categorizes individuals with a strong work ethic into four types: relentless, bulimic, attention-deficit, and savoring. The relentless workaholic fits the stereotypical image of the work addict by working compulsively and constantly; they find work to be more important above all else in life, including relationships with others and being sensitive to others' feelings. Relentless types are perfectionists with extraordinarily high standards. The bulimic workaholic is characterized by "wild," uncontrolled work patterns resembling the bingeing and purging observed in the eating disorder bulimia. This type of workaholic is known to over-commit, then procrastinate from beginning a task because they fear not completing it perfectly. Then they panic while working recklessly to complete the task in a timely manner. While it may appear they are not working, the bulimic workaholic is constantly preoccupied with thoughts of producing a perfect final product.

The attention deficit workaholic is a person who thrives on an adrenaline rush, and is in constant search of stimulation. They enjoy chaotic and risky situations, characteristics inherent in competitive sport. Often these individuals have an inability to stay focused on current projects, and move on to something new before the previous task has been completed. Sometimes, they are known to create a crisis in order to boost their own adrenaline. Attention deficit workaholics have difficulty in completing projects on time and often overlook minor details. Rather than receiving the greatest reward from completing relevant tasks, sports coaches with attention deficit work addiction may find greater passion from coaching due to the adrenaline rush received from winning competitive games.

The savoring workaholic works slowly and methodically. This type of workaholic is most strongly associated with perfectionism because the person is very concerned that the final product is not good enough. Creating additional work, as well as maintaining extensive, often menial "to-do" lists, form typical behavioral characteristics. Perhaps not surprisingly, teamwork is difficult for these individuals due to their extreme independence.

While the related literature describes work addiction primarily as undesirable, and in extreme cases psychopathological and self-destructive, work addiction is also a condition that has properties that are desirable and positive (Machlowitz, 1980). For example, unlike most addictions, about which the individual is embarrassed and attempts to keep a low profile, the work addict is often proud of his or her condition (Porter, 2001; Robinson, 1989). Since it is socially acceptable and expected for some professions to allocate a considerable amount of time toward work, many corporate cultures and environments generate extensive work demands. Individuals who choose employment in selected situations expect to work long hours and make life sacrifices, not only to better the organization, but to improve job productivity and high personal income. These persons are highly regarded amongst colleagues, supervisors, and peers (Machlowitz). Spence and Robbins (1992) refer to individuals who derive pleasure from their work behavior patterns as work enthusiasts or enthusiastic workaholics.

To Spence and Robbins (1992), work enthusiasts are highly work-involved individuals who enjoy their work but are not driven or compelled to work, while enthusiastic workaholics are a combination of both workaholics and work enthusiasts. Achievement-oriented workaholics receive considerable joy from their work and high life satisfaction. These individuals perceive work as rewarding, while making few personal demands. Achievement-oriented behavior is negatively associated with stress and high turnover when organizational rewards are available to recognize and promote achievement. Thus, an individual who is highly work involved may not necessarily be driven, and may not lack enjoyment in their work. The idea that work addiction has positive characteristics has important implications in the present study, a concept called work passion (briefly discussed in more detail later). Characteristics of work addiction, including poor work/life balance, reflect a group that, apparently, has been ignored by sport psychology researchers, sports coaches.

Sports coaches represent one population that exhibits numerous characteristics associated with work addiction (see Anshel, 2012, & Gallucci, 2008, for brief reviews). Due to its deleterious consequences to health, mental well-being, job satisfaction, job productivity, burnout, and performance effectiveness, determining evidence of work addiction among collegiate sports coaches appears warranted. The sports coach who engages in overtraining or over-practice reflects the savoring form of work addiction (Anshel, 2012). Along these lines, based on Bloom's (2002) review of literature on the coaching demands and responsibilities of expert coaches, collegiate coaches usually work well over 50 hours a week. This is consistent with Harpaz and Shit's (2003) operational definition of work addiction in terms of hours worked per week. Therefore, according to Harpaz and Snir, most coaches would be considered workaholics, making the 50-hour criterion an unacceptable standard for operationally defining work addiction. One purpose of the present study was to test this supposition.

One likely manifestation of overwork, and a related conceptual framework that sport psychology researchers have studied, is burnout. While a review of the sport burnout goes beyond the scope of this study, Kelley (1994) attributes burnout in sports coaching to "the prevalent or long-term perception of an imbalance between the demands of the coaching situation ... and the resources available to deal with the situation" (p. 48). Researchers have found that burnout among sports coaches is significantly correlated with high trait anxiety, chronic stress, and perceptions of work overload, but not time spent in coaching (Vealey, Udry, Zimmerman, & Soliday, 1992). In one study, Kelley (1994) found that male and female coaches who scored lower in hardiness and social support satisfaction were higher in perceived stress, a high predictor of burnout. Though Kelley's research did not address work addiction directly, she implied that the combination of external demands and the coach's personal needs to succeed contribute to work patterns that reflect properties of work addiction. In another study, burnout among collegiate coaches was significantly correlated with stress appraisals and emotional exhaustion (Kelley & Gill, 1993). Burnout, therefore, may be an unintended outcome of work addiction (Robinson, 1989).

As indicated earlier, apparently unknown is the extent to which work addiction is prevalent among sports coaches, particularly at the elite (university) level. By definition, work addiction is undesirable for several reasons related to maintaining proper health, job satisfaction, and long-term quality of life. Conversely, is it also plausible to surmise that elite level sports coaches employ a work pattern that consists of more desirable and positive characteristics, a condition called work enthusiasm or work passion. Although empirical research on work addiction among sports coaches has apparently been ignored, Anshel 2012) describes sports coaches as individuals who "occasionally exhibit behavioral characteristics of work addiction" (p. 270). Thus, the purpose of this study was to explore evidence of work addiction among Division 1 National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) coaches.

Method

Participants

The study consisted of a convenience sample of 16 sports coaches who were employed at the same NCAA Division 1 university located in the U.S.A., and were easily accessible to the researchers. A convenience sample was used in this study due to repeat attempts needed to schedule personal interviews, and time required to establish trust between the interviewers and the coaches. Table 1 lists descriptive statistics, age, Division 1 experience, percentage of time of their week allocated to coaching, and WART scores. Table 1 also provides frequencies of gender, ethnicity, sport type, marital status, and coaching status of all participants. Coaches from the following sports were interviewed: baseball (n = 2), women's basketball (n = 4), men's basketball (n = 2), football (n = 3), women's soccer (n = 2), tennis (n =1), track (n = 1), and women's volleyball (n = 1).

Recruitment of participants consisted of sending a hard copy letter to all coaches employed full-time by the university inviting them to engage in a 30-45 min. confidential personal interview on the topic of work habits of NCAA Division 1 college coaches. A pilot study with two coaches (one male and one female) using the preliminary interview guide indicated an interview time of approximately 45 minutes. If they confirmed interest in the interview, they were contacted by telephone to arrange a specific time and location to meet the researcher. The interview, conducted between one interviewer and one coach, was conducted in each coach's office. After each interview, coaches were individually debriefed about the purpose of the study. This study was approved by the university's IRB.

Interviews

As a condition to be interviewed, the coaches were assured that all information obtained was strictly confidential, and that they could terminate the interview and/or withdraw from the study at any time without negative repercussions. Several coaches requested that recording devices not be used, which was honored. Therefore, the interviewer--one of two doctoral students at the university who conducted the interviews--recorded the coaches' responses using hand-written notes. The coaches' wish was based on increased security that their comments would remain confidential and not be shared with university administrators or with anyone else. Because this was the only condition under which coach responses could be recorded, the researchers agreed with the coach's wishes to take copious notes and not to use an electronic device during the interview. Anshel (2001) followed a similar protocol when interviewing professional rugby players.

Materials

The structured interview guide consisted of 20 open-ended questions that addressed tendencies of work addiction. Sources of these questions were adapted for sports coaches from the Work Addiction Risk Test (WART; Robinson, 1989, 2007), a 25-item Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (never true) to 4 (always true), which is a quantitative measure of work addiction. The interview also included material from related literature (Killinger, 1991; Philipson, 2002). These authors addressed work, in general, and not sports coaching. Question content is listed in Table 2.

Procedures

Interviews were individually conducted by a female doctoral student attending an NCAA Division 1 university in the U.S.A. While two students were trained in interview techniques only one student conducted the interviews in order to maintain similarities across each interview. Another doctoral student helped create the interview guide, assisted with the pilot interviews, and assisted in content analysis. Interview protocol was reviewed with a graduate program faculty member who coordinated the study and was familiar with qualitative research techniques. The coaches asked that they remain anonymous and not be identified in our notes. Therefore, coaches were assigned a code and whose demographics could not be identified in reporting their responses.

At the interview coaches were informed about the interview's purpose, that is, to examine the coach's "typical" work habits. The words, "work addiction," "workaholism," or "work enthusiasm" were never used in the interview for two reasons: (1) to control for social desirability, in which the respondent is influenced by a perceived purpose of the study, resulting in more or less likely to respond in accordance with those expectations (Myers & Hansen, 2006), and (2) because coaches may not agree with labeling his or her work habits as an "addiction," which may have a negative connotation. Instead, the coaches may view their workload as "normal" or "expected" of an NCAA Division I college coach, and, therefore, personally desirable and fulfilling.

At the conclusion of each interview, the coaches were debriefed concerning the purpose of the study, and informed about the research question that addressed evidence of work addiction in sports coaching, in general, and in their own work habits, in particular. After obtaining this information, coaches were given the option to be excluded from the study. All coaches (100%), however, agreed to allow their responses to be used for research purposes.

Content Analyses

Procedures for conducting inductive content analysis (ICA) were followed according to Patton (2002), Charmaz (2002), and Scanlan, Stein, and Ravizza (1989). The first step of the analysis included reviewing the written transcripts, hand recorded during each interview, by the interviewer to ensure the statements were clear and included answers to each interview question. In the second step, two researchers independently identified raw data themes consisting of coach responses that reflected the primary idea of each question related to work habits and their attitudes toward their job, their current workload, and their personal life, that is, their thoughts and actions outside of work. The third step consisted of the two researchers independently reading each transcript and extracting quotes that represented a higher-order theme. Finally (fourth), if appropriate, quotes within the higher-order themes were then grouped into lower-order themes. A total of 229 quotes, which varied in length from three words to four sentences, comprised the raw data for the ICA, and which generated higher-order and lower-order themes describing components of work addiction.

The objective criterion for the selection of original quotes to be subject to content analyses consisted of the two research assistants reaching mutual agreement that a particular quote was associated with Robinson's (2007) conceptual framework of work addiction, and as depicted in the 25 WART items (described earlier). One WART item, for example, is "I spend more time working than socializing with friends or on hobbies or leisure activities" (p. 21). One coach's comment that "I try to forget about work by drinking a beer" was compatible with the higher-order theme, personal life, and subsequently was included in the lower-order theme, leisure time. Another coach comment, "For the first time in my career, my wife and I went on a cruise, except I took my cell phone for work purposes," was consistent with a lower-order theme, family. Greater reiteration of quotations confirmed the assignment of statements to specific categories. Thus, the researchers discussed the identified groupings and reached a full consensus (i.e., 100% agreement), that is, consensus validation, that the quoted material assigned to themes was accurate, a process that mirrored Scanlan et al. (1989) in the sport psychology literature. Then, a deductive content analysis (DCA) was conducted to review the original transcripts and verify the higher-order and lower-order themes. Finally, an experienced academic researcher who coordinated the study, was familiar with the related literature, and had previously conducted ICA and DCA confirmed all assigned statements to themes, providing additional consensus validation.

Results and Discussion

A total of seven higher-order themes and 19 lower-order themes were identified in exploring work addiction among the coaches based on the ICA. The designated higher-order themes were personal life, work, health, leadership, life goals, attitude towards profession, and feelings about coaching. Each higher-order and lower-order theme was conceptually related to the work addiction literature.

Personal Life

This category of quotes, comprised of two lower-order themes, leisure time (31 quotes) and family (10 quotes), was labeled personal life because it reflected thoughts and behaviors that are unrelated to the job demands of sports coaching. The coaches' personal life was discussed in every interview, especially in terms of attempting to incorporate a lifestyle of proper work-life balance. These two themes overlapped because many sports coaches only referred to leisure time as time spent with their families.

Leisure time. Leisure time reflected the thoughts and actions of coaches during periods of recreation and in the absence of meeting job demands. Sample quotes from a team sport head male coach included "I try to forget about work by drinking a beer," "For the first time in my career, my wife and I went on a cruise, except I took my cell phone for work purposes," "I do family stuff. I have two small children," and "I effectively do not think about work when my wife and kids are around." A female head coach added, "Work rarely ever goes away," and "If by myself, I go right back (to work)." While some coaches make a concerted effort to include recovery time in their schedule, they clearly lack an effective and clear work-life balance. So-called "leisure time" was relatively rare in this sample.

Family. This sub-dimension reflected the extent to which coaches spent time with family members, and their thoughts and actions while with family. Sample quotes from the two female coaches in this category included "For a female, it is very demanding to settle down for a family," "It is too hard to fully enjoy both commitments of both family and work," "I might have short-changed my kids; I have a good relationship with them, but spent more time at work," and "It is hard to fulfill a dream of meeting the needs of both family and friends." Two male assistant coaches stated that they decided not to have a family because they could not provide the proper time to both coaching and a new family. It is apparent that devoting time and energy to family is often not a priority for most of the coaches in this study.

Work

This dimension reflected the extent of time and energy devoted to actual coaching responsibilities. The work dimension comprised four lower-order themes, "motivation," "time management," "in-season duties," and "off-season duties." Each theme was supported by 16 quotes. During all interviews, coaches of both sexes consistently referred to their schedules as a "busy time of year" (in-season) or "not so busy" (off-season). However, 15 of the 16 (94%) coaches contended they have "never experienced an off-season" because of recruiting requirements and responsibilities.

Motivation. This sub-dimension consisted of the level of commitment, energy, enjoyment, and sense of achievement coaches find in their work. Sample quotations include "I enjoy watching athletes progress; from freshman to senior year they grow so much as a person and player" (male head coach), "I love to see players play the game the way I feel it should be played," (male head coach who coaches women athletes), "I extend my personality through them," (male head coach)," "I am obsessed with what I do; I am very passionate, but I have fun doing it" (male assistant coach), and these quotes from one male head coach of an individual sport), "I want to compete for a national championship," "As a coach, you get to live through the players," and "I like winning games/matches and watching the players succeed." This theme was prevalent in all interviews.

Each coach revealed some level of enjoyment and passion for being able to influence the athletes achieve success (5 comments representing male and female coaches), or the joy they feel in working with college athletes (7 comments representing male and female coaches). The motivation sub-dimension captures the coaches' primary mission for why they have selected and maintained their sports coaching career. Their emotional attachment to observing young student athletes make better life choices as a function of their mentoring provided a source of fulfillment, not unlike effective parenting.

Time management. It is apparent that coaching at the college level requires an extensive commitment of time. All (100%) of the respondents were adamant that managing time properly, although challenging, is inherent in effective coaching. Sample quotes include "I multi-task; I delegate responsibility" (3 male and 2 female team sport coaches), "All office work is finished by practice time" (a male individual sport assistant coach), "There is no set schedule; I try to complete a to-do list" (a female head coach), and "I try to do everything at once; I multi-task" (indicated by 6 male and 2 female coaches). The most common theme discussed among the coaches was to be efficient by finishing daily tasks early in the day and/ or following and completing to-do lists. In-season duties. This sub-dimension addressed the coaches' daily schedule and responsibilities during their season. Sample quotes from one male head coach of a team sport included "In the early mornings I check the locker rooms, than do some paperwork and recruiting. After lunch, we have workouts and practice. At night, I recruit. We have weekend (contests) on Saturdays and Sundays, which might require travel." Another male head coach revealed this schedule: "I arrive at work at 6:20 a.m. I have a staff meeting at 7 a. m., and meet with the defense coaches at 8 a.m. Then I make a practice schedule and watch film. At lunch time I work out. At 2 p.m., I plan meetings, and at 3:30 we practice for two and a half hours. Finally, I stay on campus for dinner and go home at 10 p.m. I remain here (on campus) for 15 to 16 hours a day." Six male coaches representing both team and individual sports appeared proud of the overwhelming number of hours they felt required to work in order to be successful. They did not indicate mixed feelings about their busy schedule because it was understood that extensive time demands was an inherent feature of the job.

Off-season duties. Coaching is a year-round position. This sub-dimension reflected their duties between seasons. Quotes for this lower-order theme included "There is hardly any difference (between in-season and off-season), except for scheduling; I still prepare for practices and still recruit" (team sport assistant coach), "It is not an 8 to 5 job. The hours I work is un known," "There is no true off-season if there is tennis camp or a tournament," and "I go to Europe for two weeks for recruiting" (male individual sport). From a team sport head coach: "I work longer hours than with the team," and "I'm here from 5:30 a.m. till 8 or 9 p.m." A female assistant coach indicates, "It is not much different from the season; I start at 8 a.m., then I have camp, prepare for recruiting or organizing, and after lunch, there is field maintenance and event preparation. In the evening, around 7 p.m., there are tournaments." In general, the coaches acknowledged they have very little time outside of work for relaxing and recreation, even in the off-season.

Health

The health dimension concerned the influence of the coaches' work patterns on their physical and mental health, and the extent to which their work affected health and well-being. Lower-order themes for health included personal health (11 quotes) and stress management (14 quotes).

Personal health. Deterioration of both physical and mental health is not uncommon manifestations of work addiction. This sample of coaches was no exception. Sample quotes for "personal health" included, from a team sport female assistant coach, "It is hard to find time to deal with health issues. Most people probably do not bother if they are sick. There is a lack of recovery from sickness," stated a second female assistant coach. "I work, go home, sleep, and back to work. I don't say that to make you feel sorry for me. Is it healthy? No it is not, but I love what I do. I am an extremist," she said. "None of us assistants ever exercise."

Apparently, some head coaches do. According to one male head coach "On Tuesdays and Wednesdays, I go for a half an hour run. I run seven days in the summer," and "If I didn't exercise, I would shoot somebody off the top of a building." It is perplexing that the coach making the latter comment also stated "there is nothing negative about my job." One possible explanation for these opposing statements could be this coach's fears of losing his job, or that being unaware of the amount of negative stress his job produced.

Stress management. To what extent were the coaches feeling job-related stress, and how did they manage it properly and successfully? Sample quotes included, "You just have to deal. There is no exercise. By preparing, I feel less stressed" (team sport head coach), "Mostly venting with other coaches. It helps to know that you are not the only staff member going through this. There is no time for exercise" (team sport male assistant coach), "I take blood pressure medication. I don't manage stress very well. I try to totally get away from it. No taking or making phone calls. I take two hours every evening. There is no working out, because there is no time" (team sport male assistant coach of a women' s team), and "I manage my stress by running" (female assistant coach).

More coaches (N=12, 75%) described exercise, or "working out," as a stress reducer more than any other stress-reducing strategy. Over half the sample (N=10, 62%) reported they did not manage their stress effectively, and that they tended to think about their job away from the office. This sample of coaches clearly indicated a paucity of effective coping skills following job-related stress.

Leadership

Coaches are team leaders, even for individual sports when representing a school team. To what extent were their leadership skills influenced by their work habits? Conversely, how did their job demands influence their leadership style? Did they demonstrate a particular work ethic as coach leaders? Lower-order themes of leadership included leadership style (18 quotes) and work ethic (16 quotes).

Leadership style. This sub-dimension consists of the typical behavioral patterns that coaches exhibit in their combined role as coach and leader. Sample quotes include "Very intense and disciplined; highly structured" (male team sport head coach), "Trying to teach and to help" (male assistant coach, team sport), "Intense; I am fair and focused; structured more than non-structured" (female assistant coach), and from team sport male assistant coaches, "A players' coach; run things game-like (in practice)," "I am hands-on. I give a lot of feedback," "I deal with athletes on a personal and professional level," "I am a perfectionist," I am intense and upbeat; no time for error; I'm a perfectionist. I make high demands," and "I am intense, controlling, high energy, and somewhat understanding." It is not surprising the majority of coaches described themselves in terms that reflect perfectionism, that is, highly controlling, intense, and structured because effective teams must have one leader.

Work ethic. This sub-dimension reflects the coaches' typical work habits, both effective (i.e., productive and efficient) and ineffective (i.e., nonproductive and inefficient). The two female coaches provided quotes that were highly similar to their male counterparts on this topic. Sample quotes from the two female respondents included, "I get all of my jobs done, but always multitasking, so it is distracting," "The problem caused by being more open-door is task completion; I don't have enough time to do my work;" and "I need to make sure to complete a task before starting a new one." Along these lines, three male assistant coaches indicated, "I'm a workaholic; I focus on details; I micromanage, but I try to delegate," "I am fanatical, relentless, an extremist; I go overboard," "I am a hard worker, somewhat compulsive,'.... Obsessed with it,' my wife would say," and "I try to work extremely hard. I expect it done right, timely, and to be ahead of the situation. I stay (at work) until midnight when needed." Perhaps one can speculate that the coaches' pride in which they describe their desire to work "at all costs" reflects a self-denial element of work/life imbalance (Robinson, 2007). These quotations lend additional credence to the work addiction construct for both male and female sports coaches, at least at the elite (university) level.

Life Goals

The life goals theme is comprised of the coaches' long-term objectives and areas they eventually want to achieve, both personally and professionally. One characteristic of workaholics is to be driven by highly desirable long-term goals. Examples include "holistic goals" (three quotes), "personal goals" (five quotes), and "professional goals" (four quotes), which compose the lower-order themes.

Holistic goals. This sub-dimension consists of general, not specific, goals that combine both personal and professional lives. Sample quotes included "I am debating a bout whether I should be a head coach" (individual sport male assistant coach) and "It is too hard to fully enjoy both commitments of family and work" (team sport male head coach). "I want to be a Division 1 head coach by (age) 30 so I can quit to have a family and children (and) set up a personal retirement" (team sport female assistant coach).

Personal goals. Coaches seemed to have limited responses in this area. Sample quotes, all coming from male head and assistant coaches, included, "I want to be very good at what I do for a living," "I want to be the best at what I do," "I want to be a good husband and father,.... I want people to enjoy being around me," and "I think I want to have a positive impact, such as helping people of all generations and backgrounds." When people have an imbalance between work and life they often struggle with healthy personal goals. Their primary reason for existence becomes that of a coach instead of the traditional family figure.

Professional goals. This category was clearly focused on achieving desirable, long-term outcomes in coaching. Sample quotes included, from one male head coach, "If I am not a coach than who am I?" A female team sport head coach said, "I expect to win a national championship; I want to continue to build the program and not exploit the athletes. I will teach them character, pride in life away from basketball, as well as what they produce on the floor." Stated a male team sport assistant coach, "I intend to win a national championship by the time I'm 42 (and) to be considered one of the most successful college coaches, and finish in the NBA." Another male assistant coach claimed, "Whatever I'm doing at the time, I want to figure out how to be the best. I want to be a part of a team to play for a national championship," and "I enjoy what I do. Right now, I want to continue. Professionally, I don't see my job changing. I have prepared for retirement, but I am not sure I would enjoy it. I feel I have a lot of years left to do this." Apparently, the self-identify of many coaches at the elite (U.S. college) level is firmly entrenched in the sports coaching profession.

The coaches' life goals revealed more comments concerning work (i.e., coaching) than family. Three "older" and more experienced coaches from this sample were concerned about whether they would find retirement enjoyable. Overall, the coaches seemed content to "positively impact" their players' young lives. The coaches found it acceptable to promote an imbalance between work and personal life based on the number of hours they worked, as compared to the number of hours spent with family and friends. Perhaps the coaches are highly altruistic in that they view serving the needs of others as more important than serving their own needs and promoting their personal well-being.

Attitudes Toward the Coaching Profession

This theme was comprised of the lower-order themes of positive attitude (34 quotes), and negative attitude (31 quotes), and was related to evidence of high or low job satisfaction.

Positive attitude. This area covered the extent to which sports coaches have positive feelings about their work. Sample quotes from a female team sport head coach included "I am 100 percent satisfied with my job;.... I love to teach the game. I like putting 12 to 15 people on the floor and make them perform as one;" and "I love building character. I love helping them understand the importance of education, being a strong female, and being their own person." A team sport male head coach remarked, "You get to stay around a game you love; the competitiveness, if winning, is a high;.... I like not having to punch a time clock. It is not like a typical job. I enjoy providing entertainment to others;.... With this age group of kids, you can still help them prepare for life ... kids, marriage;" and "I enjoy the competitiveness and trying to win." Apparently, many coaches representing both sexes enjoy the sport aspect of their job, as well as the emotional fulfillment of observing others succeed.

Negative attitude. This sub-dimension covered the extent to which sports coaches have negative feelings about their work, a feature common in work addiction (Robinson, 1999, 2000). Sample quotes from a team sport male head coach included "Not everyone (i.e., athletes) turns out well. It is a disappointment when not everyone listens. It is not like working on an assembly line where you don't take your job home." From another team sport male head coach, "The problem with coaching is the constant evaluation before the public. I put pressure on myself to win. A negative is that to do it right, it emotionally takes you away from family and friends. To do it well can consume you." A male individual sport assistant coach remarked, "I wish we didn't have to work the hours we have to work, but there is no way around it. I wish there wasn't so much pressure on college coaches, like for recruiting, but I understand it." Another male head coach claimed "The negatives (about coaching at the Division 1 level) are the lack of family time, too many hours, and lack of any normal family life," and "The negatives are the time away from family, and financially, it doesn't seem to have the benefits of other professions as related to time sacrificed." One female team sport head coach mentioned she handles losing by "going back to the drawing board and not blaming her players," but she also stated it does make her lose sleep. The negative comments about coaching reflect extensive time and energy demands, as well as a lack of work-life balance which is not uncommon in work addiction.

Feelings about Coaching

Do coaches have high job satisfaction? Are they pleased with the career they have chosen, and the career path they have undertaken? This dimension consisted of positive (12 quotes), negative (10 quotes), and ambiguous (eight quotes) lower-order themes.

Positive feelings. This area reflected the coaches' perceived benefits and sense of gratification from coaching at the university level, rather than the disadvantages and negative features they experienced from coaching. Sample quotes included "Joy, mostly. There is an awkward sense of calm in the game. There is intensity, an air of confidence, and a sense of control" from one individual sport male head coach. Another male team sport assistant coach stated, "I feel a competitive rush. There is huge satisfaction when the team plays well. It is fun, just fun. The games are fun, but I love practice." And from a female team sport assistant coach, "If it is going good, it feels great, exciting, and there is an adrenaline rush. If it is going bad, I remain still focused and think I can change it to get it done. I am very satisfied, I enjoy winning." One female team sport head coach mentioned "you have a love for the job or you wouldn't do it."

Negative feelings. More closely allied with work addiction were the unpleasant feelings and emotions associated with their coaching position and responsibilities. Sample quotes include, from a team sport male assistant coach, "I feel anxiety and nervous. When we lose, I feel frustrated. I feel like we should win every time." From a female team sport assistant I coach, "I get less happy as the game goes on; and frustration and stress build. There is always an emergency and that causes me to burnout." A male team sport head coach exclaims, "I do not take or have time to build a relationship;" "I don't enjoy losing, lack of kids' respect, lies, parents, and too much paperwork." A female head coach from the same sport type asserted, "There is tremendous time consumption. You are under a microscope and the newspaper dictates if you get fired." Both positive and negative feelings and emotions are inherent in the coaching profession.

Ambiguous. Coaches often expressed mixed feelings about their chosen profession, describing the demands of their position in positive and negative terms. Sample quotes from the ambiguous theme included, from a female team sport head coach, "I am a roller coaster; I have all kinds of feelings, including excitement, joy, disappointment, and absolute disbelief. It runs the spectrum; there is constant variation." A male team sport head coach asserts, "It is a big thing to not be super-critical. It is hard being a perfectionist," and from a female assistant team sport coach, "You can run the mill emotionally. Happy, sad, anxious, every emotion; the highest highs and lowest lows. Seeing it all come together is an awesome experience, the highest. Then, there are the unforeseeable lows."

In summary, the area of highest job satisfaction seemed difficult for our coaches to articulate. They reflected emotions related to game situations, but not the daily or cumulative emotions related to a life-long commitment to coaching (regardless of winning). The coaches' responses suggest that their job satisfaction was directly linked to winning; consistent losing was not an option. An interesting question not asked would have been, "Would you continue to coach even if your team had more losing seasons than winning seasons?" Understanding how coaches perceive themselves within a losing season might give more insight to their emotional well-being, and remains an area of inquiry in future studies.

One particularly revealing area of inquiry in the present study concerned the coaches' perceived importance of maintaining a fulfilling "personal life." The unmarried coaches mentioned it would be "unfair to have a serious relationship" or "start of family" because of the lack of time they could devote to their partner or children. The mindset that the love of coaching is more valuable and meaningful than developing family relationships is, perhaps, at the heart of work addiction (Burke, 2001). The individual is obsessed with work and fears or is anxious about engaging in activities unrelated to reaching work-related goals. It is plausible to surmise, therefore, that, workaholic coaches may subconsciously be replacing their personal life and interpersonal relationships with less meaningful, but more fulfilling relationships with their players.

Finally, a review of the data, that is, the coaches' statements, strongly suggests that work addiction is not a function of gender (men and women), ethnicity (Caucasian and African American), role (head or assistant coach), or sport type (baseball, football, soccer, etc.). Statements obtained from all 16 coaches in this study revealed highly similar personal characteristics, feelings, and work habits that convey a deep sense of commitment, energy, time, and value to achieve desirable performance outcomes. It was apparent that each coach recognized the pressures to win that reflect the expectations of others (e.g., the university, community, spectators, students, the media) to produce teams that are highly competitive and successful. These pressures, in combination with the coaches' personality characteristics, are the likely antecedents of work addiction in elite competitive sport.

Conclusion

The purpose of this study was to explore evidence of work addiction among 16 Division 1 NCAA (college) coaches, and to identify properties of this condition through personal interviews. A qualitative research method was used to examine the self-reported emotions, attitudes, and behavioral patterns experienced primarily by male, and to a lesser extent, female coaches that reflected properties of work addiction. While the drawbacks of sports coaching at the college level could be considered extreme for some individuals, over 75% of the sample was "very satisfied" with their career choice.

It was apparent that the coaches in this study were passionate about their job, and their work patterns were consistent with the definition of work addiction. Most coaches acknowledged that their time was consumed primarily by their work, and that they maintained relatively few social activities, had no hobbies, and avoided personal relationships unrelated to their coaching position. Robinson (2007) considers work addiction as unhealthy and psychopathological, partly because the work addict is unhappy, lacks life satisfaction, may be clinically depressed, and uses work as a means to gain self-identity. He makes several distinctions between healthy workers and workaholics. For example, in the present context, healthy workers "experience work as a necessary and sometimes fulfilling obligation; workaholics see it as a haven in a dangerous, emotionally unpredictable world" (p. 17). Finally, consistent with the present findings, Robinson reports that "workaholics think about working a disproportionate amount of time, even during social activities or leisure times, when their minds wander and obsess about work" (p. 17). It would appear that clinical research is needed to determine evidence of work addiction among sports coaches, and to ascertain the extent to which coaches feel contentment, job satisfaction, and a high quality of life.

Among the present findings were: (1) that the coaches reported working an "extremely high" number of hours per week, well over the minimum 50 hours per week that reflects work addiction (Machlowitz, 1980), (2) that the sources of a high workload were both internally driven and externally-imposed by the expectations of their coach colleagues and the athletic director; (3) there was insufficient leisure time in their lives; (4) that time with family was limited (i.e., "I try to spend some time with my family") or non-existent; (5) that even when spending time with family, the coaches would conduct work-related tasks by phone or deal with work issues when away from the work venue, even on vacation, (6) there was a void of personal hobbies in their life; (7) that they thought about work "all the time;" (8) that coaches often reported high stress and being in poor physical health (e.g., overweight, lack of regular exercise); (9) that their busy and constant work schedules resulted in ignoring or not recognizing important health symptoms (e.g., headaches, chest pain, colds, flu symptoms); (10) they did not give themselves sufficient time to recover from illness; (11) that they did not "deal well" (i.e., cope effectively) with stress, and had poor stress management skills, (12) that the onset of stress provided one more reason to be successful (i.e., "to win") in order to remedy their negative mental state, (13) that they enjoyed and "loved" most aspects of their job and the sport they coached; and (14) that most coaches aspired not only to continue their coaching career, but to achieve head coach status. Work addiction was apparent among this group of college sports coaches.

The participants in this study, not unlike most intercollegiate sports coaches in the U.S., reported working many hours. Long hours, however, is commonly viewed as a requirement in the coaching profession that is driven by external demands of others, including other coaches, athletic directors, alumni, and other team supporters who "expect" competitive success (Brown, 2003). It is clear that NCAA Division 1 coaches maintain long work hours throughout the year, both during and between seasons. Of the intercollegiate sports coaches interviewed, the least, most, and average number of hours worked per week were 50, 100, and 80 hours, respectively, as computed by the researcher based upon the coaches' description of a typical day. Thus, in support of Robinson (1998, 2000), it is apparent that the inability to effectively manage time is a significant contributor to work addiction.

The coaches in this study indicated a lack of time management skills. Several coaches described their primary time management technique as multi-tasking, which is known to be ineffective for work productivity and managing stress (Loehr & Schwartz, 2003). However, multi-tasking can lead to less productive outcomes by the lack of focus that any one project may require, resulting in more long-term stress from correcting errors or revisiting unresolved issues. Many coaches referred to the difficulty in managing time because of extreme variation in their daily task requirements. Three of the 16 coaches (18.7%) did mention they make to-do lists and prioritized daily tasks.

Lack of personal time was a prevalent theme in this study, and appears to reflect poor work-life balance that is commonly associated with work addiction is the corporate sector (Loehr & Schwartz, 2003). Many of the present respondents mentioned not having leisure time, and that they "try to spend some time with their families." Although, three coaches reported occasionally playing golf, for the majority of the sample, most coaches did not indicate having personal hobbies, and all 16 coaches indicated that they "often think about work while on vacation."

Interference with family responsibilities is another area of contention reported by the present sample of "hard working" sports coaches. The participants reported that their family and friends perceive the coaching profession as time-consuming; most of the coaches mentioned a "lack of understanding from family members" about their job demands. The word, "crazy," was often reported to describe how family members viewed the coaches' work patterns. Selected respondents mentioned the difficulty in starting a family, whereas others reported the difficult challenge in Wing to separate work from family life. Perhaps understandably, several coaches perceived themselves as less effective as coaches for not thinking about work while at home.

Along these lines, the coaches revealed an array of unhealthy habits, such as poor eating, working too many hours, and lack of exercise that were due to their coaching responsibilities. Not surprisingly, these habits often lead to conditions of overweight and high stress. It is readily apparent that most sports coaches need to engage in leisure time activities and become aware of the psychological and health benefits of engaging in habits that promote wellness. They need to understand that planned recovery is essential to managing the stress they endure and to maintaining good health (Loehr & Schwartz, 2003). Kelley (1994) suggests instituting stress management programs for sports coaches that assist coaches in the proper use of coping skills for improved hardiness, stress appraisal, and obtaining needed social support to tolerate and control job demands.

In support of the apparent need for making healthier lifestyle choices, nine coaches (56%) expressed personal neglect of their health. Five of the 16 coaches (31%) expressed fear of heart attacks as a result of choosing the coaching profession and Wing to deal with their job demands, often at the detriment to their health. Their preoccupation with busy, constantly changing schedules may result in ignoring or not recognizing important health issues, such as headaches, chest pain, colds, and flu symptoms, all of which might be life-threatening and lead to job burnout (Smith, 1986). While some coaches did mention exercising as a way to relieve stress and to disengage from their work, they also stated that their exercise habit was not consistent throughout the year. Most said they exercised in the summer or during the off-season; however the in-season, when the pressure to perform well is highest, might be when exercise is needed most. Exercise habits and nutrition of coaches should be areas of concern for university athletic departments, because the deficiency in both could cause disruptions for teams coached by individuals who suffer from medical conditions during a season (Kelley, 1994). Thus, universities and their respective athletic departments should consider requiring coaches to undergo an annual physical examination.

The current sample also expressed evidence of psychological and emotional stress, an outcome from possible work addiction and lack of or poor coping skills. Coping skills were not used or were used ineffectively; most coaches said they do not directly "deal properly" with stress. In fact, seven coaches (44%) viewed the onset of stress as a reason to "try and win more in order to remedy their negative mental states." The coaches did not indicate that they communicated with others, used relaxation or breathing techniques, meditation, or journaling as methods to cope with stress.

Evidence of Work Passion and Work Enthusiasm

Despite the extensive evidence of work addiction in this study, these coaches also expressed a sense of gratification, achievement, and high job satisfaction derived from their coaching career. As indicated earlier, Machlowitz (1980) contends that work addiction has a positive side. For example, unlike most addictions, about which the individual is embarrassed and attempts to keep a low profile, the work addict is often proud of his or her condition (Porter, 2001; Robinson, 1989). Since it is socially acceptable and expected for some professions to allocate a considerable amount of time toward work, the culture among selected environments (e.g., the corporate sector, college level sports coaches), and extensive work demands may be expected, fulfilling, and enjoyable. Most of these coaches appeared to fit this pattern. Individuals who derive pleasure from their work behavior patterns may be labeled work enthusiasts or enthusiastic workaholics (Robinson, 2002; Spence & Robbins, 1992).

Every coach in this study (100%) reported a high degree of job satisfaction, a sense of achievement and success, and the drive to persist in these efforts. What might be perceived as work compulsion could be a strong sense of work enjoyment and passion about a coaching career choice; there are costs and sacrifices involved in "climbing the ladder" toward a successful coaching career. Their spouses (partners) seem to share their vision and, therefore, tolerate the long hours and apparent obsession with coaching responsibilities. The coaches in this study used self-descriptors such as obsessed, workaholic, compulsive, and fanatic. Referring to oneself as a workaholic was often expressed with a sense of pride and some bravado, similar to a characteristic that reflects competence, conscientiousness, and membership among coaches at the elite level.

It is plausible to conclude that dealing constructively with the time and energy demands and requirements of sports coaching at the elite level requires a particular set of dispositions and a work ethic that is not unlike elite athletes (e.g., high need achievement, high confidence and self-esteem, setting and maintaining challenging short-term and long-term goals, tenacious, mental toughness; Feltz, Chase, Moritz, & Sullivan, 1999; Gallucci, 2008). One concept that might describe the positive nature of work addiction is work passion. Killinger (1991) explains that "work can become a state of mind; an obsession to achieve increasing levels of competence, excellence, and greatness" (p. 67). Thus, work passion is a positive manifestation of work addiction. Future research is needed to discriminate between the constructs and behavioral manifestations of work addiction, as opposed to work passion among sports coaches. Work passion, therefore, may be used to describe individuals who engage in competitive sport who are highly devoted in time and energy toward achieving work-related goals.

Implications for Sport Psychology Consultants

The present findings on work addiction among elite sports coaches have implications for sport psychology consultants. Concepts in sport psychology can be applied to make a significant contribution to sport coaches in preventing - or managing - a coach's predisposition to engage in work addiction. Personal characteristics, daily behavioral routines, and work habits of coaches can change through cognitive-behavioral interventions. Sample interventions coordinated by consultants that address work addiction primarily center on one primary concept called active recovery (Loehr & Schwartz, 2003). To Loehr and Schwartz, active recovery is predicated on the assumption that stress, per se, is not necessarily unhealthy or contrary to high performance. Instead, it is the lack of recovery from life's "storms" that produces negative emotions (e.g., stress, depression, anxiety, anger) and lack of energy. Lack of recovery is both an antecedent and a manifestation of work addiction (see Loehr, 2007). Examples of active recovery strategies concern thoughts and actions that disengage the individual from the task at hand and incorporate alterative activities. Active recovery is a planned, voluntary process which is scheduled on a daily and weekly basis. Examples include any activity that is disconnected from the (work-related) task at hand and is unrelated to work (Loehr & Schwartz). The primary role of the sport psychology consultant is to work with coaches to determine and schedule these tasks.

Sport psychology consultants can also teach time management skills to sports coaches. Almost all of the participants acknowledged working anywhere from 12 to 16 hours a day for the whole year, but were generally unaware of the number of hours they worked. Perhaps not surprisingly, there appears to be no "off-season" in which the coaches have a chance to engage in recreation rather than j ob-related activities. This sample of coaches revealed relatively little difference between in-season and off-season duties, and in many instances, coaches stated that the off-seasons are more demanding due to recruiting trips and summer camps. Universities need to address the workloads of coaches and better monitor hours worked in order to avoid burnout. By doing so, universities may experience lessened turnover of coaches and avoid the possibility of lawsuits or worker compensation claims. These findings suggest that time management seminars would alleviate some of the pressures and time constraints of this profession.

Proper use of cognitive and behavioral strategies are other areas in which sport psychology consultants may help prevent or overcome work addiction among sports coaches. Cognitive strategies might include visual imagery, progress relaxation, positive self-talk, and various intervention programs to help manage stress, anxiety, and emotional intensity that will improve a coach's mental well-being. Behavioral strategies might include goal setting, physical exercise, use of music and other conditions that produce a relaxed environment, social engineering (i.e., temporarily placing oneself in a new location unrelated to the job), and social support (e.g., interact with a friend or partner in a location away from the job). Anshel (2012) provides a further description of these strategies.

There were selected limitations in this study. The participants consisted primarily of Caucasian males (12 of 16, or 75%), limiting the generalizability of these findings to females and non-Caucasians. Examining gender differences in work addiction among sports coaches, therefore, as well as larger sample sizes and, perhaps, focusing on specific sports (i.e., team vs. individual) and various levels of competition (i.e., elite vs. non-elite) appears warranted. Only selected sports, for example, may warrant more" time on task" and workload, which makes the responsibilities of larger programs with a greater number of athletes more time-consuming and more susceptible to work addiction than relatively smaller programs. Despite the undesirable effects of work addiction, including the reflections and behavioral manifestations of this sample, these full-time elite-level sports coaches clearly indicated that few jobs can produce a similar level of thrill, excitement, and satisfaction.

The proper measurement of work addiction in sport is of primary importance in future related research. Future study is needed to validate a work addiction measure in sport, in general, and for coaches, in particular. While one measure has been validated for the corporate sector and used for non-sport samples (Robinson, 1999), the psychometrics of this measure is only moderate (McMillian, Brady, O'Driscoll, & Marsh, 2002), and was not intended for sports participants. Also needed is further qualitative research that addresses the personal and situational antecedents of work addiction in sports coaching. This would include interviewing family members and colleagues to provide a more in-depth account of the coach's work-life balance to provide a rich source of information in this area. Finally, and perhaps most important in improving our understanding of work addiction, researchers need to differentiate the concepts of heightened passion and enthusiasm for work, as opposed to work addiction, which are apparently different constructs. Addressing these limitations will improve the study's external validity and generalizability to other samples.

Author's Note

The authors extend their deepest appreciation to Allan Weaver for his assistance in this study.

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Address correspondence to: Mark H. Anshel, Ph.D., Professor, Department of Health and Human Performance, Box 96 Middle Tennessee State University, Murfreesboro, TN 37132 USA, Phone: 615-898-2812, Email: [email protected]

Kelly Lumpkin

Lee University

Mark H. Anshel

Middle Tennessee State University

Table 1
Demographic and Baseline Characteristics for all Coaches (N = 16)

Variables                      Dependent Variables     Men (n)

Coaches' Mean (SD) Age Years    42.13 yrs. (11.5)    42.42 (11.9)
Coaches'Mean (SD) Yrs            9.87 yrs. (10.2)     9.50 (10.5)
Experience in Div. 1
Time Allocation
Percentage per Week
  Family                          16.78 (11.4)       15.61 (11.4)
  Self                             9.53 (7.1)         9.46 (7.4)
  Play                             5.88 (5.1)         5.57 (4.7)
  Work                            67.75 (16.3)       69.29 (16.3)
WART Analysis
  25-56 "Not Workaholic"             31.25%               5
  57-66 "Mildly Workaholic"          43.75%               5
  67-100 "Highly Workaholic"         25.00%               4
Marital Status
  Single                              31.2%               3
  Married                             68.7%              11
Ethnicity
  African American                    12.5%               2
  Caucasian                           87.5%              12
Sport Type
  Football (n = 3)                    18.8%               3
  Basketball (n = 6)                  37.5%               5
  Soccer (n = 2)                      12.5%               l
  Baseball (n = 2)                    12.5%               2
  Volleyball (n= 1)                   6.3%                l
  Track (n = 1)                       6.3%                1
  Tennis (n = I)                      6.3%                1
Coaching Status
  Head Coach                           50%                7
  Assistant Coach                      50%                7

Variables                      Women (n)

Coaches' Mean (SD) Age Years    34(4.0)
Coaches'Mean (SD) Yrs           19(3.5)
Experience in Div. 1
Time Allocation
Percentage per Week
  Family                        25(0.0)
  Self                         10 (7.1)
  Play                          8 (9.9)
  Work                         57 (16.9)
WART Analysis
  25-56 "Not Workaholic"           0
  57-66 "Mildly Workaholic"        2
  67-100 "Highly Workaholic"       0
Marital Status
  Single                           2
  Married                          0
Ethnicity
  African American                 0
  Caucasian                        2
Sport Type
  Football (n = 3)                 0
  Basketball (n = 6)               1
  Soccer (n = 2)                   1
  Baseball (n = 2)                 0
  Volleyball (n= 1)                0
  Track (n = 1)                    0
  Tennis (n = I)                   0
Coaching Status
  Head Coach                       1
  Assistant Coach                  1

Table 2.
Interview questions posed to each coach participant.

Questions

1. How would your athletes and staff describe your style of coaching?

2. What are your time management strategies at work?

3. What motivates you to continue coaching?

4. Describe a typical day of work while your sport is in-season.

5. Describe a typical day of work for you in the off-season.

6. How do you manage your stress that is attributed to your job as a
coach?

7. What do you do with your time away from the team or office?

8. How do you feel when your team plays well but they lose?

9. When a colleague disappoints or angers you, how do you react, and
why?

10. What expectations in life do you have for yourself?

11. How do the expectations you have for co-workers and colleagues
affect your relationships with them?

12. Describe your work ethic. How might your co-workers perceive your
work ethic?

13. Compare the good and bad--benefits and negatives--of coaching.

14. Describe your thoughts during your leisure time away from the team/
office.

15. What do your family/friends think about the amount of time you put
into your coaching job?

16. Do you spend as much time as you would like with your friends/
family outside of work?

17. A three-part question: (a) How satisfied are you with your career
choice as a college coach?

(b) What are the sources of your satisfaction? (c) What do you not
enjoy about your job?

18. What are the health "issues" that are common among sports coaches
at your level?

19. Describe your feelings when you coach--when you are on the job.

20. If you divided your typical week into four categories: family,
self("personal time"), play, and work, what percentages of your time
would you place in each category, adding up to 100%.

Family: --% (e.g., spending time, nurturing the relationships with loved
ones);

Self: --% (e.g., attending to such personal needs as rest and physical
activity, relaxation, spirituality, nutrition, free time to meditate or
think);

Play: --% (e.g., having fun hobbies, recreation, leisure, social
relationships, friendships).

Work: --% (e.g., being effective and productive on the job, enjoying
what I do for a living,
working moderately, giving equal time to other areas of your life).