Student motivation in physical education and engagement in physical activity.

Bryan, Charity Leigh ; Solmon, Melinda A.

The mediating processes paradigm provides a lens for understanding and interpreting how motivational constructs mediate teacher behaviors and student learning. This framework is a "response-oriented" approach that grew out of the unidirectional process-product paradigm of the 1960's (Doyle, p. 170, 1977). Mediating constructs, such as student interest, social background, prior knowledge and beliefs, and the classroom context have been explored in attempts to explain more of the "why," or in what context, learning occurs. Student learning characteristics and the instructional setting are the essential features of the mediating process paradigm.

The cognitive mediational paradigm provides a framework for the study of student attitudes and perceptions (Solmon, 2003). Students are recognized as active and controlling agents in the learning process. They enter with varying backgrounds, knowledge, and experiences that serve as filters through which they interpret instruction and make meaning of classroom experiences. Based on prior experiences, students form attitudes that are theorized to be powerful influences on decisions they make about engaging in activity. Perceptions and attitudes are important mediators between teacher actions and what students learn and do. Positive attitudes are associated with adaptive motivational behaviors and exerting effort. Negative attitudes are expected to result in a reluctance to engage in activities (Solmon, 2003).

Self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985) provides a theoretical framework to study student motivation. Motivation is conceptualized as a continuum ranging from amotivation, or a lack of motivation to intrinsic motivation, defined as engaging in an activity as an end in itself. In between a motivation and intrinsic motivation, varying levels of extrinsic motivation reflect increasing levels of self-determination. When individuals take part only due to the threat of punishment or for a reward of some kind, they are at a level of external regulation (Standage, Treasure, Duda, & Prusak, 2003). Introjected regulation is characterized by recognizing some level of value in an activity, but feeling as though one "ought" to participate out of guilt or obligation. Identified regulation is the level at which participants see the outcome as beneficial and they begin to participate because they want to. Integrated regulation represents a level where the activity is part of the individual's identity and is relevant to higher goals, though it may still be somewhat extrinsically motivated (Biddle, 1999). Intrinsic motivation is the highest level of self-determination whereby an individual participates in an activity simply for the sake of the activity itself (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Unfortunately, much of the research in the area of motivation finds that participation in physical activity is often not intrinsically motivated (Ryan, Frederick, Lepes, Rubio, & Sheldon, 1997). Higher levels of self-determination and autonomy are more likely to elicit long-term motivated behavior.

Attitude is a factor that should be examined when investigating motivation levels because of its potential link to participation, or lack thereof, in physical activity. Attitudes are often based on experiences and events from childhood (Brustad, 1991) and attitude formation is largely shaped by the fundamental beliefs that an individual holds (Ajzen, 1988, 1993). Essentially, individuals' beliefs influence their attitudes toward certain things. Perceptions and attitudes are important mediators between teacher actions and what students learn and do (Solmon, 2003).

Used extensively throughout the literature, the term attitude is often banal and its definition, in psychometric terms, is often unclear. Frequently in attitude-related studies only one component of attitude is examined. However, this construct includes more than just one single aspect (Subramaniam & Silverman, 2000). Silverman and Subramaniam (1999) conducted a review of measurement issues on student attitudes in physical education and physical activity. They concluded that the research up to that time had yielded mixed results, and recommended additional research be conducted to recognize the ways in which student attitudes affect participation in physical activity. Parish and Treasure (2003) observed that young people's failure to meet current recommendations for moderate to vigorous physical activity may be partly related to lack of motivation. The investigation of the influence that attitude has on motivation has the potential to provide a clearer understanding of students' decisions about being physically active.

Perceived climate is an important variable in the investigation of motivation in the physical education class context. The seminal work related to motivational climate was conducted by Ames and her colleagues (Ames, 1992; Ames & Archer, 1988). A task or mastery-involved environment is one where students demonstrate their ability by mastering a task and comparisons are self-referenced. In this environment, students in physical education are more likely to be intrinsically motivated, believe that there are no gender disparities, and believe that success is the result of effort (Treasure, 1997). An ego-involved climate, on the other hand, Implies that children demonstrate their ability by having a superior performance over another individual (Nicholls, 1984). In this ego or performance-oriented climate, levels of boredom increase while intrinsic motivation decreases, students attempt to win or succeed through deception or cheating, and ability, not effort, is emphasized (Treasure, 1997). Regardless of the student perceptions of the climate, competence alone is not sufficient for engagement. Recognizing the value of the task is also necessary in that individuals must find significance in the activity and believe they can be competent before they will willfully engage (Wigfield & Eccles, 2002).

Student engagement is cultivated when perceptions of a learning climate are salient. Further, there is evidence that a task or mastery climate contributes to student learning (Biddle, 2001). In physical education, Parish and Treasure (2003) reported that physical activity levels were positively correlated with perceptions of a mastery-oriented climate. In addition, Ferrer-Caja and Weiss (2000) found that students who perceived that learning and participation were promoted in their physical education classes were more likely to engage in the activities, exert effort, and focus on learning the task or activity. A link between a mastery-oriented climate and levels of self-determination has also been established (Goudas & Biddle, 1994; Papaioannou, 1994; Parish & Treasure, 2003). Research (Parish & Treasure, 2003; Treasure & Roberts, 2001) demonstrates the necessity and importance of structuring mastery climates in physical education as a means of getting children in physical education to be as active as possible. Ntoumanis (2002), however, points out that physical education teachers are often unsuccessful in constructing adaptive motivational climates in their classes.

One goal of physical education is to promote physical activity and it is important to explore ways to accomplish that goal. The middle school years represent a critical period in the development of physical activity patterns that extend to adulthood. Participation in physical activity declines as children progress through adolescence, and the decline is more pronounced for girls than boys (Bauman et al., 2009; Parish & Treasure, 2003). The relationships among levels of motivation, attitudes, and perceptions of the learning climate, and how these factors relate to engagement in physical activity, have not been thoroughly investigated. Employing the mediating processes paradigm to investigate student motivation in physical education classes by examining relationships between these variables can provide valuable insight into designing class environments that foster engagement in physical activity.

Using self-determination theory as a framework, the purpose of this study was to investigative relationships between perceptions of the learning climate, attitudes, levels of self-determination, and engagement in physical activity in order to determine the role each plays in student motivation toward physical education. Specific research questions addressed were (a) How do students' perceptions of the motivational climate relate to student attitudes and levels of self-determination? (b) How do measures of student attitude, self-determination, and perception of the climate relate to student levels of activity as measured by pedometer counts? (c) How do students' motivation and activity levels vary by grade level and gender?

Methods

Participants

Participants in this study were 114 sixth (n = 30; 16 boys, 14 girls), seventh (n = 30; 18 boys, 12 girls), and eighth (n = 54; 23 boys, 31 girls) graders enrolled in a suburban public school. Students participated in 90-minute physical education classes every other day on a block schedule. They received instruction from certified physical education specialists. The middle school physical education curriculum focused on team sports, organized games, and fitness activities. One class of sixth graders, one class of seventh graders and two classes of eighth graders participated in the study. Prior to data collection, child assent and parental permission forms were completed. Institutional review board (IRB) approval was also obtained from the institution prior to data collection.

Instrumentation

Motivational climate. The Learning and Performance Orientations in Physical Education Classes Questionnaire (LAPOPECQ) is a 27-item questionnaire used to measure perceptions of classroom goal structure in physical education (Papaioannou, 1994). Participants are to think about their physical education class and respond to a 5-point Likert scale with one being strong disagreement and five being strong agreement. The LAPOPECQ assesses perceptions of a learning and performance climate and contains five factors: (a)teacher-initiated learning orientation; (b) students' learning orientation; (c) students' competitive orientation; (d) students' worries about mistakes; and (e) outcome orientation without effort. These factors load on two higher order factors: learning and performance.

The learning orientation subscale addresses perceptions of the teachers' behaviors and the students' satisfaction with learning. A sample item from the teacher-initiated learning orientation is: "The PE teacher is completely satisfied when every student's skills are improving." The student's learning orientation is assessed through questions such as, "I feel very satisfied when I learn new skills and games." Perceptions of a performance climate were assessed using questions regarding performance compared to peers, ability levels (performance with little effort), and how much the student is concerned with making mistakes in physical education class. The students' competitive orientation was measured by response to statements such as: "Successful students are thought to be those who perform skills better than their classmates." Students' worries about mistakes, also part of the performance orientation subscale, are represented by questions such as, "Students worry about failure in performing skills because it would lead to the disapproval of others." The third performance-oriented factor is outcome orientation without effort, which is measured by questions such as, "The PE teacher looks completely satisfied with those students who manage to win with little effort." Using confirmatory factor analysis, construct validity for the LAPOPECQ questionnaire was also established by Papaioannou (1994). In this study, data were analyzed using the two higher order factors, learning and performance climates.

Attitude. A scale developed by Subramaniam and Silverman (2000) was used to assess student attitudes toward physical education. The instrument consists of 20 items with a 5point Likert scale used for scoring. A score of one indicates strong disagreement while a score of five indicates strong agreement. The attitude scale measures two components of attitude: enjoyment and usefulness as it relates to the current physical education program and the physical education teacher. Students respond to 10 items related to enjoyment, such as the following: "The games I learn in my physical education class get me excited about physical education." The remaining 10 items represent the usefulness factor, assessed through items like, "I feel my physical education teacher makes learning in my physical education class valuable for me." Content validity for the attitude instrument was ascertained through a panel of experts. The content validity for attitude enjoyment was .94 and attitude usefulness was .99. Subramaniam and Silverman (2000) also established construct validity through confirmatory factor analysis. Negative items are included in the scale and were reverse coded prior to data analysis.

SIMS Motivation Scale. Levels of self-determined motivation were assessed using the Situational Motivation Scale (SIMS), a 16-item self-report inventory that assesses intrinsic motivation, identified regulation, external regulation and amotivation (Guay, Vallerand, & Blanchard, 2000). Participants are asked to use the scale and indicate the answer that best describes the reason why they are currently engaged in an activity. A seven-point Likert scale is used for all responses. A score of one does not correspond at all and a score of seven corresponds exactly (Standage et al., 2003). Sample statements from the SIMS representing each of the subscales are: "Because I think that this activity is interesting"(intrinsic motivation); "Because I think this activity is good for me" (identified regulation); "Because I feel like I have to do it (external regulation); and "There may be good reasons to do this activity, but personally I don't see any" (amotivation).

The SIMS assessment exhibits internal consistency using Cronbach's alpha levels (Guay et al., 2000). Further, the SIMS is able to discern motivational constructs adequately between genders and across a wide variety of activities. Previous research (Standage & Treasure, 2002) demonstrated the ability of the SIMS to delineate between intrinsic motivation, identified regulation, external regulation and amotivation. The SIMS has consistently demonstrated both reliability and construct validity in previous research studies (Guay et al., 2000; Standage et al., 2003).

Self report of physical activity. The Physical Activity Questionnaire for Children (PAQC) was used as a measure of self reported levels of physical activity. Designed for students in grades four and above, the PAQ-C measures levels of moderate to vigorous physical activity across different settings (Kowalski, Crocker, & Faulker 1997). Students report how many times in the previous week they participated in a wide range of physical activity behaviors (Crocker, Bailey, Faulkner, Kowalski & McGrath, 1997; Kowalski et al., 1997). Other physical activity bouts related to physical education, free time, recess, extracurricular sports, weekend activities, and evening activities are also addressed within this instrument. The PAQ-C for example, asks, "In the last 7 days, on how many days right after school, did you do sports, or play games in which you were very active?" Another question asks, "This past weekend, how many times did you play sports, dance or play games in which you were very active?" The PAQ-C has many advantages, such as its ease of use, the expedient manner in which it is explained and administered, and the fact that the instrument is of minimal cost. Kowalski et al. (1997), in their validation study on children in grades four through eight, reported a one-week test-retest reliability of .75 for boys and .82 for girls.

Physical activity. Pedometers were used as an objective measure of physical activity on three physical education days and once for a 24-hour count. Pedometers are a widely acceptable tool for measuring student levels of physical activity (Graser, Pangrazi, & Vincent, 2009; Scruggs et al., 2003), and Vincent and Pangrazi (2002) established that three to four days of pedometer counts could predict habitual physical activity levels. In order to meet the Surgeon General's recommendation of 30 minutes of activity a day, individuals would need approximately 3,200 to 4,000 steps to meet this goal (Le Masurier, 2004). Pedometers provide an instantaneous response in a quantifiable way regarding the activity, which can be quite encouraging for individuals (Le Masurier, 2004). A disadvantage of pedometer use is that they are unable to quantify the intensity, frequency or duration of activity (Beighle, Pangrazi, & Vincent, 2001); however, in field research and in physical education classes, they are an extremely straightforward and efficient mechanism for assessing activity levels.

Students in this study were accustomed to the use of pedometers in physical education, which greatly facilitated the management aspect of this research. For the purposes of this study, during physical education, students participated in a variety of activities such as bowling, soccer, walking, capture the flag, and fitness testing. Students were monitored throughout the activity time to ensure that pedometers were not manipulated or lost during movement. At the end of each physical education class, pedometers were removed and the researchers recorded the pedometer count. Reliability for the Digi-Walker pedometer has been established through correlations of step counts, energy expenditure, and engagement time in physical activity (Welk et al., 2000).

Procedures

Data were collected over five consecutive physical education days. Due to the time constraints of block scheduling, researchers met with two classes (sixth and eighth grade) on one day and seventh graders on the following day.

Data Analysis

All data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Relationships among variables were evaluated using simple correlations. To ensure the reliability of the SIMS, the attitude scale, and the LAPOPECQ, Cronbach's alphas were computed for all questionnaire items. A series of four 2 (gender) by 3 (grade) multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVAs) with univariate follow-ups were used determine if perceptions of the motivational climate, attitudes, self-determination, and physical activity varied by gender and grade level.

Results

Means, standard deviations, and Cronbach's alphas for the variables in the study are reported in Table 1. From the descriptive data, the physical education class climate tended to be perceived as learning as opposed to performance. Analogous to the climate scores, attitudes regarding the physical education classes were also relatively positive. Inspection of the means suggests that intrinsic motivation and identified regulation are more influential in terms of self-regulation than external regulation and amotivation.

Relationships among Motivational Constructs

Relationships between variables were assessed using Pearson's correlation coefficients. The correlation matrix for all variables is reported in Table 2. Three sets of relationships were of interest in the analysis of the data: perceptions of the motivational climate, levels of self-determination, and attitude. Examination of the interrelationships among these constructs provides a background for interpretation of the relationships between them. Perceptions of a learning climate, with a focus on learning and improvement, were unrelated to perceptions of a performance climate, with a focus on outperforming others. The lack of a relationship between these two variables suggests that students did not necessarily perceive one type of climate in physical education over the other. Within the levels of self-determination, intrinsic motivation, and identified regulation were positively related, while amotivation was negatively related to both intrinsic motivation and identified regulation. In addition, amotivation was positively associated with external regulation. These relationships are consistent with the theoretical assumptions of self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985). There was also a strong positive correlation between enjoyment and usefulness (r = .803), the two components of attitude.

How perceptions of the motivational climate relate to levels of self-determination and attitudes was a primary research question for this study. Perceptions of a learning climate were related to the components of self-determination and attitude. Intrinsic motivation and identified regulation were positively associated with perceptions of a learning climate, while amotivation was negatively related to perceptions of a learning climate. Though statistically significant, the strength of these relationships was relatively weak. Perceptions of a learning climate were also positively related to both the enjoyment (r = .484) and usefulness (r = .516) constructs of attitude, and these relationships were of moderate strength. Perceptions of a performance climate were not related to levels of self-determination or attitude.

The examination of the relationships between self-determination and attitude were also of interest. Intrinsic motivation and identified regulation were both positively correlated with attitude enjoyment and usefulness, while amotivation was negatively related to both attitude constructs. Though statistically significant, the strength of these relationships was relatively weak.

Activity Levels and Motivational Variables

Perceptions of the motivational climate, levels of self-determination, and attitudes were generally not related to the measures of physical activity. Specifically, attitude enjoyment had a weak, but statistically significant positive association with the pedometer count in physical education classes, while external regulation had a weak, negative relationship with that measure. No other significant relationships emerged. The data also revealed a positive weak correlation between the physical education pedometer count and the 24-hour pedometer count. However, neither of the pedometer counts was related to the self reported levels of physical activity as assessed by the PAQ-C.

Gender and Grade Effects

Means by grade and gender are reported in Table 1. The MANOVA for motivational climate yielded a significant main effect for grade [Wilks' [lambda] = .911, F(4, 212) = 2.53, p = .041]. The main effect for gender [Wilks' [lambda] = .963, F(2, 106) = 2.02, p = .137] and the grade by gender interaction [Wilks' [lambda] = .969, F(4, 212) = .85, p = .497] were not significant. Univariate follow-ups revealed that 8th graders had lower perceptions of a learning climate than 6th and 7th graders IF(2, 107) = 5.00, p = .008, ES = .54], who did not differ from one another. Perceptions of a performance climate did not differ by grade level.

The MANOVA for attitude also yielded a significant main effect for grade level [Wilks' [lambda] = .900, F(4, 214) = 2.86,p = .026]. The main effect for gender [Wilks' [lambda] = .977, F(2, 106) = 1.26,p = .287] and the grade by gender interaction [Wilks' [lambda] = .937, F(4, 212) = 1.75, p = .141] were not significant. Univariate follow-ups revealed that sixth graders rated physical education as more enjoyable [F(2, 107) = 5.55, p = .005, ES = .70], and useful [F(2, 107) = 4.14, p = .014, ES =.60] than seventh and eighth graders, who did not differ from one another.

It is important to highlight the differences in children who are in 6th, 7th and 8th grades from an age perspective. First, we know that children ages 12-21 do not regularly participate in vigorous activity and their participation rate in physical activity decreases by 50 to 75% from kindergarten to 12th grade (Sallis, 1995). Trost, et al., (2002) also found significant inverse relationships with both moderate and vigorous physical activity and grade level. Sadly, age related changes appear to be exacerbated in girls in that their physical activity declines are even more drastic, even in structured settings such as physical education classes (McKenzie, 2003). Much of the research that attempts to explain these declines has focused on motivation issues in physical activity (Parish & Treasure, 2003), while other research explains the differences as a result of significant physiological and psycho-social changes during this age (Ruffin, 2009).

For levels of self-determination, there were no significant effects for grade [Wilks' [lambda] = .864, F(8, 208) = 1.97, p = .052], gender [Wilks' [lambda] = .962, F(4, 104) = 1.04, p = .393], or the grade by gender interaction [Wilks' [lambda] = .917, F(8, 208) = 1.146, p = .334], although the main effect for grade approaches significance. Inspection of the means suggest there is a trend for 6th graders to display lower levels of amotivation and external regulation than 7th and 8th graders, but the differences between the groups do not reach statistical significance.

The MANOVA for physical activity levels revealed significant main effects for both grade [Wilks' [lambda] = .639, F(6, 194) = 8.13, p < .000] and gender [Wilks' [lambda] = .852, F(3, 97) = 5.64, p = .001 ]. The gender by grade interaction was not significant [Wilks' [lambda]= .931, F (6, 194) = 1.17, p = .325]. Univariate follow-ups revealed that while self-reported physical activity did not differ for grade [F(2, 99) = .20, p = .823] or gender [F(1, 99) = 1.53, p = .219], pedometer counts yielded both grade and gender effects. During physical education classes [F(2, 99) = 26.88, p <.000], 6th graders took more steps than 7th graders (ES = .91), who took more steps than 8th graders (ES = .54). The 24-hour counts did not differ by grade [F(2, 99) = .182, p =.834]. Girls took fewer steps than boys both during physical education classes [F(1, 99) = 15.16, p < .000, ES = .69] and during the 24-hour count [F(1, 99) = 5.13, p =.03, ES = .20] Girls averaged 2701 steps while boys averaged 3310 steps during physical education classes. Over the 24-hour period, girls and boys took 10,095 and 11,988 steps respectively during physical education classes.

Discussion

The focus of this study was to explore relationships among perceptions of the motivational climate, attitude, and self-determination, and investigate how those factors interrelated to affect student engagement in physical activity. The first research question focused on how students' perceptions of the motivational climate related to their attitudes and levels of self-determination. Perceptions of a learning (task-oriented) climate were related to positive attitudes regarding both the usefulness and enjoyment of physical education and higher levels of self determined motivation. This suggests that positive attitudes about engaging in activity in physical education classes are fostered when a task-involved environment is salient. When opportunities for students to progress at their own rate are provided, student attitudes and motivation toward physical education may improve.

One important finding in this study was that the perception of the climate appeared to be a stronger influence on students' attitudes than on their levels of self-determination. This finding is unique, as other studies (Goudas & Biddle, 1994; Papaioannou, 1994; Parish & Treasure, 2003) have reported a link between a mastery-oriented climate and levels of self-determination, but have not considered how attitudes are related to the climate.

The second research question examined how measures of perceptions of the motivational climate, student attitudes, and self-determination related to student levels of activity as measured by pedometer counts. It is unclear why stronger relationships did not emerge for the physical education and 24-hour pedometer counts in regard to the attitude, climate and self-determination variables. Additional research with these variables could provide valuable information in this regard.

An intriguing finding is that the pedometer counts have no relationship to the self-report measure of physical activity. This poses an interesting scenario and may lead one to question whether or not the pedometer is a good measure of physical activity both in and outside of physical education time. It is important to keep in mind that pedometer counts in this study were compared across classes and activities. One logical conclusion is that pedometer counts need to be obtained in a similar environment for successful comparisons to be made.

The final research question was related to the ways in which students' motivation and activity levels vary by grade level and gender. The results with regard to grade level are consistent with previous research documenting decreases in physical activity levels and motivation during adolescence (Bauman et al., 2009; Parish & Treasure, 2003). Perception of an emphasis on learning in the motivational climate and students' attitudes exhibited a marked decline from the sixth grade to the eighth grade. This was accompanied by a decrease in the average number of steps taken during physical education classes. Taken together, these findings suggest that this is a critical period in the downward trend in both motivational constructs and physical activity levels. Efforts to foster positive attitudes toward physical education and to emphasize a focus on learning and individual improvement in the motivational climate seem to be especially important during the middle school years if teachers are to slow the decline in physical activity levels during adolescence.

According to the pedometer counts, boys in this study were significantly more active than girls. There are two potential explanations for this finding. First, it is well documented (Bauman et al., 2009) that activity levels decline faster and at an earlier age for females than males and this finding is consistent with that conceptualization. Second, it is possible that many of the physical education activities at the middle school were stereotypically "male" oriented activities. Soccer and capture the flag (using a football) may have piqued the interest of males more so than females. This finding is consistent with other studies that have used pedometers to measure physical activity levels in children (Vincent & Pangrazi, 2002). Previous research using the PAQ-C (Kowalski et al., 1997) also found boys to be more active than girls using the self-report measure, but in this study those differences did not emerge.

The professional implications resulting from this study are two-fold. First, students who feel and/or perceive that they are involved in a task-oriented learning environment where the needs of all children are addressed are more likely to have more positive attitudes about physical education and physical activity. The importance of the link between a climate that fosters task involvement and intrinsic motivation cannot be overemphasized, especially in settings such as physical education and physical activity where individuals are likely to continue participation if they are intrinsically motivated to do so. Characteristics of a task-oriented environment include emphasis on mastering the task at hand, self-referenced evaluation (i.e. improvement), emphasis on effort and zero gender inequity (i.e. equipment, activities, etc.).

Second, it is critical that physical educators offer activities that are appealing to both genders or, provide a choice of activities to perhaps increase the likelihood of all students being more active during physical education time. Providing choice in the physical education class, whether in terms of activity selection, difficulty of task, or other alternatives, fosters a sense of autonomy, one of the critical components of self-determination, and decreases the sense of working or learning in a controlled environment (Tessier, Sarrazin, & Ntoumanis, 2008).

Applying Research to Practice

This study provides new evidence to support relationships between self regulation, attitudes, and learning climates which has previously been largely unexplored. Previously, there have been measurement issues related to attitude instruments in physical education. To date, this is the only study to use this instrument in conjunction with others that are valid and reliable.

Researchers and teachers have begun to use pedometers as a measure of engagement. The previous results were not strong and neither were the results of this study in relation to pedometer counts. This raises an issue regarding self-report data. Since the pedometers do not relate to self-report data, this calls into question how well students can reliably recall their levels of physical activity. Second, the weak relationships between pedometer data and other variables contributes to a growing body of evidence that other devices, such as accelerometers, may provide greater insight and more valid and reliable data in future research. Another possible limitation is that, since pedometer counts had only low correlations with the other variables, one may question the selection of activities used in the study. Bowling and fitness testing are potentially low-step activities and may require a greater amount of time "waiting" for the student.

While there were disparate types of activities offered in the physical education classes (i.e. bowling and fitness testing), it is critical that practitioners understand how to structure class activities in order to engage all students. Most individuals seek activities in which the feel competent and where they can experience success (Harter, 1978). Unfortunately, the traditional sports-based curriculums used in many programs are too narrowly focused (Bryan, Johnson, & Solmon, 2004; Ennis, 1999; Santina, Solmon, Cothran, Loftus, & Stockin-Davidson, 1998) and do not provide a motivational climate that is appropriate for students who may not like sports, who do not feel competent or successful, or those who are physically inactive and/ or unfit. Further, an overemphasis on competition may especially alienate females who often participate at a lower intensity in competitive situations, thus exacerbating their inability to meet the physical activity guidelines (Scruggs, Beveridge, & Watson, 2003). One of the best strategies for ensuring student engagement is to provide a variety of physical activities and allowing some level of autonomy where students make choices regarding the activities in which they wish to participate. Providing a wider selection of activities increases the likelihood that students will find something they like that will keep them physically engaged.

The ways in which physical educators structure their classes and attempt to influence the climate of their class has a tremendous impact on student response, attitude, and levels of participation. Those who are responsible for teaching young people skills and knowledge in physical education, as well as the fitness concepts important for a lifetime must be cognizant of how their activity selection and approaches may influence students toward or away from greater levels of physical activity.

Specifically, the influence of the physical education climate on students' attitudes is of paramount importance. The results of this study, along with extending this line of inquiry for future research will contribute to a growing body of research that may help guide programs and physical educators to design classes which will elicit more active, healthier students. Indeed, this is a promising area of research, but much work remains to be done.

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Charity Leigh Bryan

University of Louisiana at Lafayette

Melinda A. Solmon

Louisiana State University

Address correspondence to: Charity Bryan, University of Louisiana-Lafayette, Dept. of Kinesiology. 225 Cajundrome Blvd. Lafayette, LA. 70506. Work: (337) 482-6282, Cell: (225) 241-3883, Email: [email protected]

Table 1.
Means, Standard Deviations (in parentheses) and Cronbach's Alpha
Coefficients for Motivational Climate, Attitude, Level of
Motivation, and Physical Activity Level by Gender

Variable          Boys          Girls           6th           7th
                 n =57          n =57          n =30         n =30

LAPOPECQ, (1- 5 Likert)

Learning          3.29           3.34        3.58 (a)      3.40 (a)
climate           (.69)          (.69)          (.67)         (.44)

Performance       2.94           3.08          3.02          3.06
climate           (.51)          (.52)          (.55)         (.52)

Attitude (1-5 Likert)

Enjoyment         3.52           3.21        3.81 (a)      3.21 (b)
                  (.77)          (.92)          (.72)         (.79)

Usefulness        3.45           3.16        3.65 (a)      2.24 (b)
                  (.66)          (.86)          (.66)         (.70)

SIMS (1-7 Liken)

Intrinsic         4.21           4.20          4.60          3.92
Motivation       (1.33)         (1.43)        (1.18)        (1.34)

Identified        4.19           3.94          4.03          3.91
Regulation       (1.41)         (1.21)        (1.30)        (1.22)

External          3.83           4.05          3.40          4.18
Regulation       (1.28)         (1.43)         (138)        (1.06)

Amotivation       3.14           3.39          2.78          3.48
                 (1.29)         (1.17)        (1.37)        (1.21)

Physical Activity

PE            3310.65 (1)     27012 (2)     3830.00 (a)   3019.46 (b)
pedometer      (846.61)       (823.04)      (744.13)      (563.44)

24-hour       11988.30 (1)   10095.48 (2)    11352.63      11229.62
pedometer      (4735.60)      (4106.73)      (4587.20)     (4563.13)

PAQ-C            1.17            1.11          1.13          1.21
composite        (.46)           (.46)         (.40)         (.55)

Variable          8th         Total     Cronbach
                 n =54        n =114     Alpha

LAPOPECQ, (1- 5 Likert)

Learning         3.12 (b)     3.32        .87
climate          (.75)        (.68)

Performance      2.99         3.01        .72
climate          (.54)        (.51)

Attitude (1-5 Likert)

Enjoyment        3.19 (b)     3.36        .91
                 (.89)        (.86)

Usefulness       3.12 (b)     3.30        .87
                 (.83)        (.78)

SIMS (1-7 Liken)

Intrinsic        4.19         4.20        .81
Motivation      (1.44)       (1.37)

Identified       4.16         4.06        .75
Regulation      (1.38)       (1.31)

External         4.10         3.93        .76
Regulation      (1.42)       (1.35)

Amotivation      3.42         3.27        .72
                (1.10)       (1.24)

Physical Activity

PE            2540.60 (c)    3005.93
pedometer     (768.76)      (885.77)

24-hour        10778.88     110050.9
pedometer      (4525.81)    (4515.27)

PAQ-C            1.10         1.14
composite      (0.43)       (0.46)

Mean in the same row with differing superscripts are
significantly different at the p <.05 level.

Table 2.
Correlations for Motivational Climate, Attitude, Level of
Motivation, and Physical Activity level

Variable                      1      2      3       4       5

LAPOPEC

l. Learning
2. Performance               .l0

Attitude

3. Enjoyment                 .48 *  -.10
4. Usefulness                .52 *  -.14   .80 *

SIMS

5. Intrinsic Motivation      .27 *   .03   .37 *   .30 *
6. Identified Regulation     .25 *  -.01   .21 *   .22 *   .66 *
7. External Regulation       .14     .14   .01    -.05    -.07
8. Amotivation              -.23 *   .09  -.29 *  -.33 *  -.40 *

Physical Activity

9. PE count                  .07     .10   .18 *   .07     .13
10. 24-hour count            .03     .05  -.03    -.03     .13
11. PAQ-C                    .04     .10   .01     .09     .16

Variable                      6       7      8     9   10

LAPOPEC

l. Learning
2. Performance

Attitude

3. Enjoyment
4. Usefulness

SIMS

5. Intrinsic Motivation
6. Identified Regulation
7. External Regulation      -.06
8. Amotivation              -.33 *   .45 *

Physical Activity

9. PE count                  .01    -.19 *   .01
10. 24-hour count            .15    -.01    -.01  .28
11. PAQ-C                    .14     .00    -.09  .15  .16

* p <.05