The relationship between youth sport specialization and involvement in sport and physical activity in young adulthood.

Russell, William D. ; Limle, Ashley N.

Youth sport participation in the United States is associated with numerous positive health behaviors (Pate, Trost, Levin, & Dowda, 2000). This environment provides prosocial characteristics that promote positive values, such as fair play, competitiveness, and achievement (Pate et al., 2000), and has been linked to high levels of enjoyment (Scanlan, 1989). Because so many children are involved, youth sport is thought to be a significant developmental experience (Fraser-Thomas, Cote, & Deakin, 2005). The psychological and social benefits of regular physical activity through youth sport may help children cope with stress, counterbalance sedentary lifestyles, foster positive relationships and protect against youth delinquency (Pate et al., 2000; Washington et al., 2001; World Health Organization, 1998). Sports participation during childhood is consistently associated with greater physical activity and sports participation in adulthood. For example, Perkins, Jacobs, Barber, and Eccles (2004) followed a sample of 12-year old adolescents until early adulthood and found that those who participated in sports as adolescents were more likely to participate in sports and physical activity as young adult. Similar results have been shown for European youth (Tammelin, Nayha, Hills, & Jarvelin, 2003), and sports participation during adolescence has been shown to be a better predictor of sport participation 20 years later than socioeconomic status (Scheerder et al., 2006). Finally, participation in organized youth sport is associated with greater physical activity and better subjective health during young adulthood, and this relationship is independent of participation in other forms of general physical activity, suggesting that youth sports have a unique influence on young adults' health and sport behaviors (Dodge & Lambert, 2009).

In recent years, however, the youth sport focus has shifted from spontaneous, fun-oriented, youth-organized activities to highly-structured, adult-organized sport (Ewing, Seefeldt, & Brown, 1996), and an outcome has been a growing trend of youth sport specialization, defined as a year-round training program in one sport at the elimination of other activities (Wiersma, 2000). Optimal individual and team sport performance may require a certain degree of sport specialization (Hill & Simons, 1989), and youth athletes who practice skills with increased frequency and duration are likely to become more proficient (Ericsson, Krampe, & Tesch-Romer, 1993; Ward, Hodges, Williams, & Starkes, 2004). However, research has indicated that sport expertise may be acquired from sport practice at an early age without the need for early specialization and a singular focus on sport-specific practice (Baker, Cote, & Abernathy, 2003). Youth sport specialization comes with psychological and physical risks (Hecimovich, 2004), including withdrawal/burnout (Coakley, 2009; Gould, 2010; Gould, Tuffey, Udry, & Loehr, 1996), increased injury risk (Kaleth & Mikesky, 2010), and stress associated with over-involvement and expectations of parents and significant others (Wiersma, 2000).

Participation in multiple youth sports, also referred to as early sampling (Cote, Lidor, & Hackfort, 2009), appears to maximize physiological development (Barnett, Van-Beuren, Morgan, Brooks, & Beard, 2008; Busseri, Rose-Krasnor, Willoughby, & Chalmers, 2006). During growth and development, youths' bodies are physiologically predisposed to non-specialized physical activities. Therefore, physical development and success in sports are enhanced by participating in multiple sports in a manner that allows for periods of active rest and recuperation (Kaleth & Mikesky, 2010). As such, the consensus is that specialization may be more likely to inhibit or distort balanced physical development, limit motor development and learning (Branta, 2010; Cote, Lidor, & Hackfort, 2009) and undermine the forms of participation that maximize lifelong fitness and well-being (National Association for Sport and Physical Education, 2010).

Youth sport participation may be especially important as a physical activity outlet, given the growing childhood obesity epidemic (Hancox, Milne, & Poulton, 2004; Schwimmer, Burwinkle, & Varni, 2003; Stensel, Gorely, & Biddle, 2008). Between the ages 6 and 11, almost 19% of youth are overweight, up from 6.5% in 1980 and in adolescents (12-19 years old), 17.4% are obese (Ogden et al., 2006). For many youth, organized sport is their primary physical activity (Brustad, Vilhjalmsson, & Fonseca, 2008). Furthermore, recent trends support the idea that organized youth sport involvement replace more traditional forms of physical play for youth, such as self-organized physical games (deliberate play) and modified forms of traditional sports (Centers for Disease Control, 2003; Coakley, 2009). Thus, organized youth sport may not add opportunities for youth to be active, but instead replace traditional forms of youth physical activity (Brustad, Vilhjalmsson, & Fonseca, 2008). Despite findings that children who participate in youth sport are more likely to be physically active in general (Kraut, Melmanmed, Gofer, & Fromm, 2003), and that youth sports participation is associated with increased physical activity and sports participation later in life (Dodge & Lambert, 2009; Perkins, Jacobs, Barber, & Eccles, 2004; Scheerder et al., 2006; Tammelin et al., 2003), there is a dearth of research examining whether individuals who specialize in one youth sport vary on attitudes toward physical activity and sport participation as young adults.

Concern regarding youth sport specialization effects on long-term sport participation and physical activity involvement stems from various factors. First, intensive devotion to a single sport may limit overall fundamental motor skill development, which could in turn influence long-term physical activity involvement and lifelong sport participation (Branta, 2010; Wiersma, 2000). Year-round participation in one sport can lead to overuse, over-training, and injury, thereby limiting overall growth and physical development (Hollander, Meyers, & LeUnes, 1995; Kaleth & Mikesky, 2010) and may lead to premature withdrawal. Moreover, it has been recommended that young athletes should have a minimum of two to three months off each year from their sport for injury recovery and burnout prevention (Brenner, 2007), a rest period that may not occur when specializing in one sport. Psychologically, learning a wide range of physical skills and being exposed to diverse experiences and relationships promotes psychological development (Gould, 2010) and specialization may weaken intrinsic motivation to participate in sport (Ewing & Seefeldt, 1996; Gould, 2010). Also, enjoyment is a consistent predictor of physical activity involvement (Stucky-Ropp, Vanderwal, & Gotham, 1998; Weiss, 2000) and when youth specialize in a single sport, it may transform intrinsically-based participation motivations into more extrinsic reasons (Fraser-Thomas & Cote, 2006) and lessening the inherent activity enjoyment. In fact, during early stages of development, lack of enjoyment is the single most important reason for sport withdrawal altogether (Butcher, Lindner, & Johns, 2002).

The term "organized youth sports" refers to all types of adult-structured competitive sports provided for children and adolescents, which vary from recreational to extremely competitive. Since adults often establish the value structure within youth sports (Coakley, 2009), one cannot assume that youth sport involvement inherently fosters positive physical activity and sport attitudes as well as behavioral practices in children or adolescents. Of particular interest is how youth sport involvement influences motivation to be physically active in later adolescent and early adult years. Because little research has explored long-term physical, social, and psychological effects of organized sport involvement during childhood and adolescence, research is needed to understand the role of youth sport involvement in the promotion of healthy physical activity practices and adopting an active lifestyle. The Developmental Model of Sport Participation (DMSP; Cote, Baker, & Abernathy, 2003) suggests that youth in sport programs eventually choose to either participate at a recreational or elite level, or they choose to drop out of sports altogether. In order to promote prolonged participation, the model emphasizes diversified sports participation that focuses on deliberate play activities during the "sampling years" (ages 5-12). Deliberate play activities (e.g., street hockey or driveway basketball) are monitored by age adapted rules, are intrinsically motivating, and are designed to maximize enjoyment (Fraser-Thomas & Cote, 2006). Through sampling various sports and deliberate play, the sampling years are vital for self-regulated sport involvement during adolescence and young adulthood (Cote, Lidor, & Hackfort, 2009).

Youth sport specialization may foster negative attitudes toward sport and physical activity, especially if specialization results in physical injury, increased competitive anxiety, burnout and early dropout. Deci and Ryan's Self-Determination Theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985) posits that competence, autonomy, and relatedness are three basic human needs, and the degree to which they are satisfied determines intrinsic motivation for that activity. Many sport factors are related to intrinsic motivation (Vallerand & Rousseau, 2001) such as playing for a democratic coach (versus a controlling coach), participating in recreational settings focused on skill development (versus a competitive league), and having high perceived control over one's participation conditions (versus having the conditions of participation mandated by supervising adults; Weinberg & Gould, 2011). Therefore, program features of highly specialized sport settings (e.g., lack of perceived control over participation conditions) may reduce self-determination, lessening intrinsic motivation for that activity. Talent development within youth sport may depend on whether youth emotionally bond to an activity so they can self-regulate their own skill mastery (Coakley, 2009). Yet, to the degree that youth sport specialization is linked to greater risk of burnout, lack of perceived autonomy for participation, and dropout, youth may develop lower participation motivation of a given sport in particular or sport in general. Therefore, an unfortunate outcome of youth sport dropout is that youth may sever a link to a more active lifestyle, both in youth and as a young adult. Examining young adults' recall of their youth sport experience may be important in that a common issue cited by adolescents and young adults concerning whether to engage in physical activity and sport is based on personal recollections of their sport and physical education experiences (Coakley & White, 1992).

The purpose of this study was to determine if youth sport specialization and retrospective recall of youth sport experiences were related to participants' perceptions of and participation in sport and physical activity as young adults. Based on previous research indicating that youth specializing in sport at younger ages had shorter sport careers and negative implications for long-term sport involvement (Carlson, 1988; Gould, Tuffey, Udry, & Loehr, 1996; Wall & Cote, 2007), it was hypothesized that young adults who specialized in one sport as youth athletes would report different attitudes toward and lower participation in physical activity and sport as young adults.

Method

Participants

A sample of 153 participants (71 males; 82 females) was obtained through general education wellness courses at a mid-size Midwestern university. Participants' ages ranged from 18 to 22, with a mean age of 19.80. General education courses were selected because all students were required to enroll in these courses at this institution, regardless of major, therefore minimizing a selection bias due to over-representation of certain majors such as physical education majors.

Measures

Demographic Questionnaire. Participants completed a survey which included basic demographic information (gender and age), whether they specialized in a single sport as a youth athlete, their current participation classification in the sport(s) they participated in as a youth (competitive participant, recreational participant, do not currently participate), as well as questions about current frequency of sport participation, aerobic exercise, and resistance training.

In addition, a set of items was developed for this survey which examined participants' general retrospective perceptions of their youth sport experience and the scope of these questions was based on noted risks and benefits of youth sport participation NASPE 2010; Wiersma, 2000) as well reasons given by youth for participation and withdrawal from sport (Hecimovich, 2004; Weinberg & Gould, 201 I). The 17 items (1) were set to a five point Likert scale (l=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree), such that a higher overall score from these 17 items indicated more positive overall retrospective perceptions of youth sport. An example of a positive-oriented item was "I felt a sense of accomplishment within my sport." An example of a negative-oriented item was "I felt isolated in my own small world of my sport" and negative-oriented items were reverse-scored. A Cronbach's alpha test was conducted to determine the internal consistency of the 17 items developed for this study to measure young adults' perceptions of their youth sport experience. The resultant Cronbach's alpha ([alpha] =.77) indicated acceptable internal reliability for this set of items (Nunnaly, 1978).

Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale. The Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES; Kendzierski & DeCarlo, 1991) is an 18-item scale employing bipolar adjectives in a 7-point semantic differential format. The PACES is designed to assess the extent to which an individual experiences a particular physical activity as enjoyable. For example, participants are asked to respond to how they feel about physical activity using bipolar adjectives such as "I enjoy it--I hate it", "It's very invigorating--it's not at all invigorating", and "it's very pleasant--it's very unpleasant." Evidence for the validity and reliability of the PACES has been demonstrated (Kendzierski & DeCarlo, 1991). Cronbach alpha coefficients of .93 to .96 have been reported (Crocker, Bouffard, & Gessaroli, 1995) and evidence for test-retest reliability (Zervas, Ekkakakis, Emmanuel, Psychoudki, & Kakkos, 1993) and construct validity (Crocker et al., 1995) of the scale has been provided.

Procedures

After obtaining project approval from the university Institutional Review Board and permission from course instructors, students who agreed to participate and who also met age eligibility requirements (between 18 and 22 years-old), and who participated in organized youth sport prior to 15 years of age completed a survey packet. Because a distinction has been made between youth sport and interscholastic sport (Coakley, 2009), youth sport was defined as organized sport programs for children age 14 and younger, based on the 2010 position statement from the National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE, 2010) on youth sport program guidelines. Youth sport specialization was defined as youth athletes limiting their athletic participation to one sport which was practiced, trained for, and competed in throughout the year. Surveys were directly administered to participants within general education courses and participants completed the survey packets in less than fifteen minutes.

Data Analysis.

All analyses were conducted using SPSS 17.0 for Windows (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL). Two separate independent t-tests were conducted to determine current physical activity enjoyment and positive perceptions of youth sport experience, based on sport specialization status in youth.

The first t-test on PACES scores determined whether participants' current enjoyment of physical activity differed as a function of whether or not they specialized in one youth sport. The second t-test determined whether participants' overall positive perceptions of their youth sport experience (total score from items 1-17) differed according to whether or not they specialized in one sport as a youth athlete. Chi-square procedures were used to examine whether there was a relationship between whether young adults specialized in one youth sport and their current sport participation classification. Finally, multiple regression procedures were used to determine whether gender, youth specialization classification, and overall retrospective youth sport perceptions were predictive of physical activity enjoyment as young adults. Participants' PACES score served as the criterion variable in the regression analysis, while gender, specialization classification, and overall positive perception score (items 1-17) served as predictor variables in the model. The a priori significance level established for all analyses was at the p =.05 level.

Results

The final sample of 153 participants consisted of 71 males (M age = 20.07 years; SD = 1.29) and 82 females (Mage = 19.57 years; SD = 1.32). Ethnicities of the current sample indicated that 121 participants were Caucasian (79%), 23 were African-American (15%), four were Asian-American (2.6%), three were Hispanic (2%), and two were American-Indian (1.3%). Eighty-seven participants (56.9%) of the total sample reported specializing in a single sport as a youth athlete. The most frequently reported sports participants specialized in were basketball (n = 17), soccer (n = 17), softball (n = 11), football (n = 11), and baseball (n = 10); these five sports accounted for 76% of all youth sports reported in the current sample as demonstrated in Table 1. In addition, participants who specialized in a single sport were asked to recall the age they began specializing in that sport. While ages varied, 17 participants (11.1%) reported beginning specializing at age 8, while 15 participants (9.8%) reported beginning to specialize at age 5 (Figure 1). Participants were asked to classify their current participation status in the sport they participated in as a youth athlete. Thirty-three participants (21.6%) indicated they were currently competitive participants in that sport, 66 participants (43.1%) indicated they were currently recreational participants in that sport, and 54 (35.3%) participants indicated they no longer participated in the sport they played as a youth.

Results from the independent t-test comparing participants' specialization classification on physical activity enjoyment were nonsignificant (t = .496, p > .05). Separate independent t-tests comparing current exercise frequency based on specialization classification were nonsignificant for both aerobic exercise frequency (t = .101, p > .05) and strength training frequency (t = 1.74, p > .05) as young adults. In addition, overall retrospective perceptions of participants' youth sport experience did not differ as a function of whether they specialized in a single sport as youth (t = .310, p > .05). However, Chi square results examining the relationship between whether young adults specialized in one sport as a youth and current sport participation status were significant ([X.sup.2] (2) = 8.77, p < .05), indicating that those who specialized in a single sport as youth athletes were less likely to participate in sports as young adults, compared to participants who played multiple youth sports. Finally, results from the multiple regression procedure to predict young adults' physical activity enjoyment from their youth sport specialization classification (specialize, did not specialize), overall positive perceptions of youth sport (items 1-17), and gender revealed a significant overall equation (F(3,149) = 7.32, p < .001), with an [R.sup.2] of. 128. Participants' predicted physical activity enjoyment score was equal to 56.27 - 1.91 (SPECIALIZATION STATUS) + .78 (TOTAL PERCEPTION SCORE)--2.80 (GENDER), where specialization status was coded as 1 = specialized, 2 = did not specialize, total perception score was participants' overall perception score from items 1-17, and gender was coded as l = male and 2 = female. While neither gender nor specialization classification were predictors of physical activity enjoyment as young adults, participants' total youth sport experience perception score (items 1-17) was a significant predictor of young adults' physical activity enjoyment (p<.001), indicating that as perceptions of one's youth sport experience were more positive, physical activity enjoyment increased as a young adult.

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to ascertain if youth sport specialization and retrospective recall of youth sport experiences were related to perceptions of and participation patterns in sport and physical activity as young adults. A substantial proportion of participants (76%) reported specializing in one of five team sports: basketball, soccer, softball, football, or baseball. Young adults' physical activity enjoyment was not influenced by whether they specialized in a single sport as youth. In addition, self-reported exercise frequency (aerobic exercise and resistance training) in young adulthood was not influenced by whether participants specialized in a single sport as youth. However, those who specialized in a single sport as youth were less likely to actively participate in sport as a young adult. This result supports previous findings that youth sport specialization may have detrimental implications for long-term sport involvement (Carlson, 1988; Gould et al., 1996; Wall & Cote, 2007). In addition, participants' perceptions of their youth sport experience predicted physical activity enjoyment as a young adult, regardless of whether or not they specialized in a single sport. Specifically, more positive perceptions of youth sport were associated with greater physical activity enjoyment increased as young adults.

The current findings represent several interesting insights into young adults perceptions of their youth sport experiences and physical activity and sport behavior patterns as young adults. While young adults' physical activity enjoyment was not related to sport specialization in youth, overall perceptions of one's youth sport experience appeared to be related to physical activity enjoyment in young adults. This finding supports the contention that positive youth sport experiences enhance continued interest in the physical domain (Baker, 2003; Brustad, 1996; Butcher, Lidner, & Jones, 2002; Wiersma, 2000) and that early sport diversification is linked to a longer sport career and has positive implications for long-term involvement (Cote, Lidor, & Hackfort, 2009). Neither young adults' physical activity enjoyment nor exercise frequency were influenced by specialization status; yet the hypothesis that young adults who specialized in one sport in their youth would report lower participation in sport as young adults was supported. Taken together, these findings may indicate a combination of developmental and motivational factors characteristic of highly-organized, adult-controlled, specialized sport settings that may have accounted for different participation rates as young adults.

Youth sport programs are developmentally important because they have potential to help develop fundamental motor skills which serve as a foundation for future recreational adult sport participants (Branta, 2010; Fraser-Thomas & Cote, 2006). If children do not acquire a good repertoire of fundamental locomotor skills, they may confront skill proficiency barriers, making it difficult for success at higher levels of skill acquisition. In addition, the DMSP model suggests that children who enter into sport programs eventually choose to participate recreationally, at an elite level, or withdraw from sport participation (Cote, Baker, & Abernathy 2003). In order to promote continued participation, the model emphasizes diversity in sport participation, with a focus on deliberate play activities in the "sampling years" (ages 5-12). In their recent position statement on youth sport specialization, NASPE (2010) indicated that single-sport specialization was more likely to "inhibit or distort balanced physical development, restrict skill-development opportunities and undermine the forms of sport participation that maximize lifelong fitness and well-being" (NASPE, 2010, p.3). In considering both the DMSP model and NASPE's position statement then, a developmental concern observed in the current study was the self-reported age at which participants indicated they began single-sport specialization. According to the American Academy of Pediatrics (2000), adolescence begins at 13 years of age and their recommendation is that single-sport specialization should be discouraged before adolescence. Yet, out of 87 participants in the current study who self-reported they specialized in one sport as youth, Figure 1 demonstrates that 79 (91%) participants indicated they began specializing in their sport before reaching adolescence. Therefore, the recommendation of diversity in participation during sampling years may not be occurring for many youth athletes and practices observed in the current study directly contradict pediatric recommendations.

From a motivational perspective, sport specialization may lessen youths' sense of autonomy, competence, and relatedness, which are important to long-term motivation as indicated by Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000). For example, overly-competitive settings driven by extrinsic motivational sources (e.g., social status, advancing to the next higher competitive level, extrinsic rewards such as trophies and rankings) which are more evident in specialized settings, may be less likely to be available to them in later years. In addition, when youth athletes specialize in a single sport, their experience is more likely organized and controlled by coaches, parents, and administrators that lessen the youth's sense of autonomy in that context. Perceptions of low autonomy can result in emotional exhaustion or burnout, particularly in highly invested athletes such as those who specialize in a single sport (Coakley, 1992; Raedeke, 1997). Related to this motivational context, it is interesting to note that applied research examining youths' motivation to stay engaged with physical activity has found that being forced to exercise during childhood actually decreased the likelihood of continuing activity in adulthood (Taylor, Blair, Cummings, Wun, & Malina, 1999). Therefore, a similar decrease of personal autonomy for participation in specialized sport settings may play a role in lessening participation as an adult.

In terms of perceived competence, youth specializing in one sport may encounter more of a "survival of the fittest" experience, making future sport participation in that sport less likely if they have lower perceived competence in that sport. Social comparison factors may be more salient in such settings and youth athletes may be more vulnerable to lower perceived competence as they continually compare themselves to an increasingly rigorous standard. Self-determined motivation patterns are most likely to promote long-term sport and physical activity participation (Brustad, Vilhjalmsson, & Fonseca, 2008). Future research will need to directly examine the motivational constructs of perceived autonomy, competence, and relatedness when determining young adults' perceptions of their youth sport experience. These variables may shed light on self-deterministic factors that influence attitudes toward physical activity and sport, as well as participation patterns when individuals develop from adolescence into young adulthood.

It is important to note several limitations of the study. First, the sample size was limited and over 79% of the sample was Caucasian, so these results may not be generalized to other races. Future research in the area of youth sport specialization also needs to examine perceptions of other ethnicities on their youth sport experience. Second, the use of a college student sample was viewed as a limitation, since young adults in college tend to come from similar socioeconomic backgrounds and thus may have more similar youth sport experiences. Future research needs to examine this relationship in young adults from a much wider range of socioeconomic backgrounds. Third, the majority (76%) of sports that were specialized in from this sample were team sports. It is possible that the different social dynamics between individual and team sports may influence participation in a given sport as an adult, however the current study design precluded a determination of the extent to which various social dynamics in youth sport influenced later sport participation in adulthood. As such, this should be a focus of future research in this area. In addition, because this study utilized a one time, cross-sectional approach that incorporated the use of participants' retrospective recall of their youth sport experience, it is acknowledged that there are inherent limitations to accuracy in recall over time. Long-term, prospective studies are needed in which youth sport participants who specialize in a single sport are followed from youth into adolescence and young adulthood to more accurately track physical activity and sport behavior patterns of those who specialize in youth sport.

In conclusion, young adults' sport participation patterns appear to be associated with their sport specialization status as youth athletes. Future research should examine the extent to which young adults' perceptions competence, autonomy, relatedness (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000) experienced during youth sport influences long-term sport participation, as well as long-term enjoyment of sport and physical activity participation.

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William D. Russell and Ashley N. Limle

Missouri Western State University

Footnotes

(1) The first author may be contacted for a copy of the instrument used in this study.

Address Correspondence to: William D. Russell, PhD. Dept. of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, Missouri Western State University, 214 Looney Complex, St. Josesph, MO 64507. Phone: 816-271-4491

Figure 1. Frequency of ages at which participants reported specializing
in a single youth sport

Frequency

Self-reported age of specialization

3    1
4    6
5   15
6    8
7    7
8   17
9    5
10   9
11   6
12   4
13   7
14   2

Note: Table made from bar graph.