Self-regulation strategies in mixed martial arts.
Massey, William V. ; Meyer, Barbara B. ; Naylor, Adam H. 等
Self-regulation, or the ability of an organism to manage thoughts,
feelings, and behaviors, and delay gratification to achieve a
longer-term objective, is thought to play a major role in human behavior
and performance (Baumeister, 2002; Gailliot & Baumeister, 2007).
Researchers have previously proposed various biological, psychological,
and environmental factors that may affect an individual's capacity
for self-regulation. Among them, Baumeister and colleagues proposed the
strength model of self-regulation, in which self-regulation is thought
to be a limited resource that is mediated by levels of blood glucose
(Baumeister, Vohs, & Tice, 2007; Gailliot & Baumesiter, 2007;
Gailliot et al., 2007). Research has supported this notion, as
individuals' performance on laboratory tests of self-control
decrease with subsequent self-control tasks when compared to control
subjects (Baumeister, Bratslavsky, Muraven, & Tice, 1998; Gailliot
et al., 2007; Muraven, Tice, & Baumeister, 1998). Furthermore,
researchers have demonstrated that tasks of executive functioning, such
as the ability to plan and monitor behavior, self-reflect, and use
logical reasoning, require self-regulation and that depletion of
self-regulation can impair performance in these domains (Schmeichel,
Vohs, & Baumeister, 2003).
In examining performance in sport, researchers have demonstrated a
connection between the need for self-regulation and sport performance.
For example, scholars in the field of sport psychology have provided
evidence that an athlete's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are
associated with high levels of sport performance (e.g., Gould,
Dieffenback, & Moffet, 2002; Gould, Eklund, & Jackson, 1992a,
1992b; MacNamara, Button, & Collins, 2010a, 2010b), and exerting
control over these responses requires self-regulation (Baumeister et
al., 2007). Researchers have also reported that the ability to delay
gratification, which is implicitly connected to one's
self-regulatory abilities, is essential to elite performance in sport
(Ericsson, Krampe, & Tesch-Romer, 1993; Holt & Dunn, 2004;
Wolfenden & Holt, 2005). Furthermore, as it relates to tasks of
executive functioning, researchers have shown that attentional control,
effective decision-making, planning and monitoring, and ongoing
evaluation (Baker, Cote, & Abemethy, 2003; Ericsson et al., 1993;
MacNamara et al., 2010a, 2010b; Massey, Meyer, & Naylor, 2013;
Orlick & Partington, 1988) are characteristic of high-level
performance amongst athletes.
Similarly, commonalities exist between negative states that can
affect both self-regulatory abilities and sport performance. For
example, athletes in all sports and at all levels of participation
regularly encounter stressors that have the potential to affect
performance (Hanton, Fletcher, & Coughlan, 2005). According to
Lazarus (2000), anticipation of a stressful situation provokes an
appraisal of either challenge (i.e., perception that one can meet the
demands of the situation) or threat (i.e., perception that one cannot
meet the demands of the situation). Recently, Jones, Meijen, McCarthy,
& Sheffield (2009) proposed a Theory of Challenge and Threat States
in Athletes (TCTS A) hi which resource appraisals, as well as emotional,
physiological, and performance consequences varied as a product of
whether an athlete appraised a situation as challenging or threatening.
In a challenge situation, it was suggested that an athlete displays high
levels of self-efficacy, high-perceived control, and increases in
sympathetic-adreno-medullary (SAM) activity, all of which are thought to
facilitate sport performance. In considering the role of
self-regulation, Bandura (1997) proposed that high self-efficacy and
perceived control increase one's self-regulatory capacity.
Additionally, increased SAM activity increases blood flow to the brain
and is associated with higher levels of blood glucose, which can fuel
executive functioning (Riby, Law, Mclaughlin, & Murray, 2011).
Conversely, Jones and colleagues posited that threat situations resulted
in low self-efficacy, low perceived control, and increased
pituitary-adreno-cortical (PAC) activity, which can lead to negative
emotions, suboptimal levels of performance, and impaired self-regulatory
abilities (Bandura, 1997; Baumeister et al., 2007).
Despite the aforementioned links between self-regulatory abilities
and sport performance, there is a paucity of literature utilizing
self-regulation theory to examine strategies athletes use to manage
their behavior during practice and competition. Research in non-sport
domains supports the use of humor (Tice, Baumeister, Shmueli, &
Muraven, 2007), increased motivation (Muraven & Slessareva, 2003),
and behavioral plans (Webb & Sheeran, 2003) to facilitate
self-regulation; however, less is known regarding self-regulation in an
athletic population. In one study that examined the role of
self-regulation in sport, Collins and Durand-Bush (2010) reported that a
series of interventions grounded in the Resonance Performance Model
(Newburg, Kimiecik, Durand-Bush, & Doell, 2002) improved
self-reported group cohesion, self-regulation, and performance across
the season of an elite curling team. In another study that examined
self-regulation in sport, Massey et al. (2013) utilized a grounded
theory methodology and proposed a framework of self-regulation in the
sport of mixed-martial arts (MMA). Consistent with the strength model of
self-regulation (Baumeister et al., 2007), Massey and colleagues
suggested that external training factors such as the need to create an
ascetic routine, develop a social support system, and periodize training
with appropriate rest periods both required self-regulation and also
helped increase self-regulatory capacity among MMA fighters. It was also
reported that MMA participants welcomed physical pain and psychological
distress as a necessary part of the training process --both of which
might play a role in self-regulatory abilities.
While limited in scope and design, the studies conducted by Collins
and Durand-Bush (2010) and Massey et al. (2013) provide initial support
for the need to enhance self-regulation skills in high performing
athletes. In an effort to examine the specific strategies athletes use
to enhance self-regulation skills, the purpose of the current study was
to examine the use of self-regulation strategies to enhance performance
in a sample of MMA athletes.
Methodology
The current study was part of a larger grounded theory project
designed to examine psychological performance and self-regulation in
MMA. Throughout the research process, the first author was actively
involved in the data collection through observation and recording field
notes of MMA training and competition sessions, participating in
training sessions with participants, engaging in constant dialogue with
participants, and conducting formal recorded interviews.
Participants
Nine MMA athletes participated in formal, recorded interviews
lasting between 20 and 90 minutes (see Table 1 for demographic
information). As an iterative approach was taken to data collection and
analysis, one athlete participated in two recorded interviews six months
apart to help expand and clarify points raised by previous participants.
Additionally, three of the participants were consulted at multiple
phases of data collection and analysis to discuss the first
author's interpretation of the data, add clarity to concepts, and
provide direction for future data collection and analysis.
Procedures
Prior to the start of the study, all procedures were approved by a
university Institutional Review Board. The first author then contacted
the general manager of an MM A Academy to explain the nature of the
study. Upon approval from the staff, and with the knowledge that the
first author was entering the field site as a researcher, an unlimited
training membership to the Academy as well as the equipment necessary to
participate in practice sessions was purchased.
Prior to conducting formal research interviews, the first author
spent eight weeks observing MMA fighters at the MMA Academy. Field notes
from these observations were used in conjunction with the existing
literature in MMA and combat sport to create an interview script that
was theoretically sensitive to the population under study. The interview
script was then audited by the second author to confirm the questions
were consistent with field notes, past research, and the purpose of the
project. The original interview script was broad in focus and included
questions that allowed MMA athletes to describe the psychological
demands of the sport, their preparation for competition, their
perceptions of psychological factors in MMA, as well as how the
environment plays a role in training (Appendix A). Following each
interview, the interview script was amended to address emergent themes
in the data, and explore the experiences of the participant.
Data Analysis
A constructivist philosophy (Charmaz, 2000; Smith, 2009; Sparkes
2002) was embraced by the authors of the current study. Data collection
and analysis took place over a one-year period in which the first author
engaged in participant observation, collected field notes, and had
multiple contacts with participants. Following the construction of a
grounded theory model of self-regulation in MMA (see Massey et ah,
2013), a hierarchical content analysis was performed to explore
self-regulation strategies used by MMA fighters. Data were line coded
and inductively analyzed into lower and higher order themes (i.e.,
processes of change, embodied emotions, psychological skills). Raw data
coding and themes can be found in Table 2. Throughout the research
process, the second and third authors audited the coded transcripts and
served as a critical sounding board to challenge the first author's
assumptions and encourage critical thinking (Phoenix & Smith, 2011 ;
Sparks & Smith, 2009). Additionally, a peer reviewer with expertise
in grounded ethnography audited the data coding and served as a critical
sounding board throughout the research process.
[TABLE 2 OMITTED]
Methodological Rigor
Maxwell (2005) identified eight criteria used in qualitative
research designs that enhance the credibility and trustworthiness of
one's results (i.e., long-term involvement, rich data, searching
for discrepant evidence, triangulation, respondent validation,
qualitative comparison, quasi-statistics, an experimental design). In
the current study, six of these criteria were addressed. The first
author spent over one year at the MMA Academy interacting with
participants (i.e., long-term involvement). During this time, the first
author took field notes, conducted participant observation and reflected
on these experiences, and conducted 10 formal interviews (i.e., rich
data). Once new themes and concepts failed to emerge, data were compared
with the case notes of a sport psychology consultant working in the
sport of MMA (i.e., qualitative comparison). Given that the interview
data were congruent with the case notes of the sport psychology
consultant1, it was determined that saturation had been reached.
Throughout data analysis, the first author also conducted member checks
(i.e., respondent validation) to support interpretation of the results
and to clarify discrepancies found in the data (i.e., searching for
discrepant data). When discrepant data were discovered, the first author
collected additional data to aid in analysis and interpretation.
Finally, participant observation, formal interviews, member checks, and
qualitative comparison allowed for triangulation of the data in the
current study (i.e., triangulation), which enhanced the trustworthiness
of the results.
Results and Discussion
The purpose of the current study was to examine the self-regulation
strategies used to train and compete in a sport environment in a sample
of MMA athletes. As shown in Figure 1 and as will be discussed below,
results of the current study suggest that the use of behavioral
processes of behavior change, development of embodied emotions, and use
of psychological strategies played a role in the self-regulation and
eventual performance of MMA fighters.
Use of Behavioral Processes of Change
Participants in the current study consistently provided examples of
behavioral strategies that were intended to regulate their actions.
Stimulus control (i.e., controlling various stimuli in the environment)
was a frequently cited strategy for fighters who needed to increase
physical training and/or change their diet for a weight cut. As one
fighter noted:
First thing, even now if you go in my house I have pretty much no
junk food. Never do. Once in a great while I will buy something,
but if it is not there, you can't eat it. That is the best thing
(P7).
Another participant utilized stimulus control by actively avoided
eating with friends while in training, as he became angry when his
friends would eat things he could not.
In addition to exercising control over the stimuli in their
environment as a way of regulating behavior, fighters also used forms of
counter conditioning (i.e., replacing behaviors with more adaptive
behaviors) when training for an upcoming competition. Common examples of
this strategy included replacing eating unhealthy food with eating
healthy food, replacing leisure time with training, and replacing nights
out with friends with staying home and studying film. In an effort to
sustain these behaviors, participants implemented contingency management
strategies (i.e., a self-reward system) to facilitate self-regulatory
abilities throughout training:
As far as temptation goes, I think it is important with my diet
that I always have a cheat day. So I am on a diet for six days a
week and then Saturday is my cheat day. And you know when you have
something, when there is a light at the end of the tunnel that you
are looking forward to ... you are not as tempted (PI). The
importance of giving oneself permission to engage in non-training
behaviors was
also identified as a reward. As one participant explained:
You are supposed to occasionally go to a wild party. You know I
don't drink, but you have to schedule those things in there so you
don't completely snap. So make sure you do some stupid stuff once
in a while (P7).
Thus, by building "cheat days" into the diet and training
routine, fighters were able to regulate their behavior over longer
periods of time, which led to more effective training regimens.
Furthermore, participants in the current study regularly discussed
the need for self-liberation (i.e., to fully commit to their training).
For some, this was a more transient process as it related to training
for a specific bout. For others, however, this commitment went further
than any one event. As one participant reported, "... and I have
sacrificed and dedicated my entire adult life to this, you know and it
is a dream come true. I have always wanted to be a ninja and now I am a
real live ninja (P2)."
While an individual commitment to training was needed, establishing
helping relationships promoted a sense of community around the stringent
lifestyle of MMA training, which also aided fighters' ability to
self-regulate:
Like I said, being in a large fight team where there is always
someone who is training for a fight at the same time as you. There
are other people going through the same crap that you are. It's
like man I am hungry, man I would love to eat, or I would love to
go out and party but I can't, oh I want to do this but I can't. The
guys here you know, you are training partners, you are there to
support each other, there is a good support structure (P1).
The behavioral processes used by athletes in the current study, and
reported above, are consistent with processes of change that have been
reported by individuals who are undergoing an intentional behavior
change in other change domains (Prochaska & Velicer, 1997). In
particular, behavior change researchers have noted that stimulus
control, contingency management, counter conditioning, self-liberation,
and helping relationships (see Table 3) are important processes in a
multitude of behavior domains (Bowen, Meischke, & Tomoyasu, 1994; Di
Noia, Contento, & Prochaska, 2008; Lowther, Mutrie, & Scott,
2007; Marshall & Biddle, 2001; Massey, Meyer, & Mullen, 2015).
The results of the current study are supported by past research, in that
fighters who engage in transient behavior change processes to prepare
for an upcoming fight (e.g., change in diet, increased training
behavior) use similar strategies to those engaging in health related
behavior changes. Given that previous research has supported the use of
behavioral planning to facilitate self-regulation (Webb & Sheeran,
2003)--as well as the use of processes of change to improve exercise,
weight loss, and sport performance--behavioral planning that
incorporates the processes of change mentioned above may assist MMA
fighters in their self-regulatory abilities.
[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]
Embodied Emotions
Mixed martial arts athletes in the current study reported the need
to be physically and emotionally engaged throughout training in an
effort to enhance self-regulatory capacity during a competition.
Participants reported the need to be both reflexive (e.g., "you
don't have time to think, you just react") as well as
strategic (e.g., "it is like a full contact chess match")
during training and competitions. In reflecting on their experiences,
participants noted that the most optimal training for automating these
responses were practices that developed the physical and emotional self
as one. Thus, practice did not hone the body mindlessly nor did practice
teach active emotional regulation. Rather, practice developed a
concomitant set of well-ingrained physical habits as well as cognitive
and emotional processing skills that allow a fighter to be mentally
flexible during the dynamic competition environment (i.e., embodied
emotions).
In an effort to create well-ingrained physical responses,
participants in the current study noted the need for constant repetition
in practice:
Repetition, Repetition, Repetition. Like, you can go over certain
scenarios a hundred thousand million times eventually you will
become accustomed, at least you will get a little bit better at
dealing with that scenario you know (P2).
In an effort to train one's cognitive and emotional processing
skills, practices were often structured in a way that forced
participants to actively cope with their emotions. As one participant
noted, "A lot of the drills we do, we do limited rest breaks and
they have to learn to emotionally get through the stuff, you know what I
mean? That is the hardest part (P3)." Similarly, another
participant noted:
Man, it is like stepping into the jungle and accidently peeing on
the wrong tree. That is what it feels like, like you are in the
wrong territory ... It is just so intense you have to be ready for
anything. I mean in here people are jumping off walls and throwing
strikes from crazy angles. The training is so intense ... (P9)
The use of repetition to hone physical skills, as reported by
participants in the current study, is consistent with previous research
on combat sports (e.g., Spencer, 2009; Wacquant, 2004). In his study on
habit development in a population of MMA fighters, Spencer (2009)
discussed the importance of being parrot like during MMA training, as a
"parrot does not reflect, it repeats" (p. 128). As Spencer
goes on to discuss, constant drilling and repetition is necessary to
automate participants' skills prior to competition, as there is
little time to think or deliberate once a competition begins.
The use of an intentionally high stress and anxiety-provoking
environment to train the emotional self, as reported by participants in
the current study, is consistent with research in combat sport as well
as other sport settings (Baumeister, 1984; Spencer, 2009). Given that
heightened cognitive anxiety has the potential to shift perceptual cues
from task-relevant to task-irrelevant stimuli (Eysenck, Derakshan,
Santos, & Calvo, 2007), it has been proposed that practicing in an
anxiety-producing environment can increase the self-regulation needed to
cope with pressure situations. Once again, this process can be seen in
the following field note recorded by the first author (August 20, 2010):
At practice today, coach revealed the following: "I didn't tell you
this but yesterday I purposefully put you through the ringer. All I
was trying to do was break you down mentally and try to get you to
fight with your emotions. I wanted to see if you were tournament
ready or not. You did very well, did not get emotional at all, so
good work."
While the quote above mentions not getting emotional, perhaps more
salient is the notion that emotional engagement during training can
facilitate the development of cognitive control mechanisms that are
critical for adapting to the dynamic situations of competition (Blais,
2010). Thus, rather than being devoid of emotion during training,
emotional engagement may help an athlete to accept emotional
experiences, rather than utilizing resources in an effort to suppress or
control emotions. This notion is also congruent with scholars who
support the Resonance Performance Model in that remaining engaged in the
present is thought to facilitate performance and self-regulation
(Collins & Durand-Bush, 2010; Newburg et al., 2002). Similarly,
while learning has previously been viewed as either an intellectual
endeavor (e.g., remembering the playbook) or physical endeavor (e.g.,
building muscle memory), scholars have recently begun to demonstrate
that learning that incorporates emotion can help an individual develop
tacit knowledge that shapes effective decision making and performance
(Damasio, 2005; Immordino-Yang & Damasio, 2007; Immordino-Yang &
Faeth, 2010). Thus, training in an environment in which constant
repetition is conducted in conjunction with emotional engagement allows
the fighter's body and mind to react optimally, thereby increasing
capacity to self-regulate during competition.
Use of Psychological Strategies
Consistent with previous research (e.g., Hatzigeorgiadis,
Zourbanos, Galanis, & Theodorakis, 2011; Meyers, Whelan, &
Murphy, 1996), MM A athletes in the current study similarly reported
using psychological skills and strategies to improve sport performance.
Their experiences using strategies for intensity regulation, confidence
building, and strategic planning to aid in self-regulation and improve
performance are discussed below.
Intensity regulation. Fighters in the current study reported
frequent use of intensity regulation strategies such as deep breathing,
imagery, self-talk, music, and meditation. These strategies were often
used by MMA participants to manage pain and distress during training as
well as the moments leading up to competition. As one participant
explained, "For me, it's really just being able to calm
yourself down. Put yourself in a place where you need to be, and not
freaking out in different scenarios (P6)."
Conversely, other participants took a more structured approach to
being able to regulate bodily responses. As one athlete commented:
Yeah when I do my physical training, I wear a lot of HR monitors.
So I will do something where I am going to try to get my HR as high
as I can up, up towards 200, 185, 190 and then it may just be for
20 or 30 seconds and then I am going to see how quickly I can come
back down to 120 or 130. And at the beginning of my training it
might take 90 seconds and hopefully towards the end, after four to
six weeks that you know I can get back down to 120 in 45 seconds
(P4).
When probed further on how he was able to reduce his heart rate
during these training session, the athlete noted using a combination of
deep breathing and relaxing thoughts.
That MMA athletes described intensity regulation as necessary for
optimal performance is consistent with other peak performance literature
in which athletes have reported arousal and anxiety regulation and the
ability to cope well under pressure as necessary for performance (Gould
et al., 1992a, 1992b; Greenleaf, Gould, & Dieffenbach, 2001; Krane
& Williams, 2009). Similarly, Baumeister et al. (2007) reported that
heart rate variability is an indicator of self-regulatory depletion.
Thus, the ability to control both physical and psychological responses
to competition may have an impact on both self-regulation and
performance.
Confidence enhancing strategies. Participants in the current study
also discussed the need for confidence to get through the rigors of
training and feel ready for a competition. In an effort to enhance
confidence in one's abilities, several strategies were employed.
One such strategy was to use simulation training, whereby the fighter
and his team attempted to mimic the pain and stress of a competition
during training periods. Participants often noted that the pain and
distress endured during training was worth it, as working through
physical and emotional discomfort in practice facilitated confidence in
their abilities to do so in a competition. As the fighter quoted below
stated:
So coming down to it, yeah this practice sucked, but coming up to
the fight you have confidence. I think your confidence stays high
no matter how crappy a practice was, no matter how hard it was or
how shitty it was, like your confidence is always going to be up
because you know your teammates pushed you to a level to make you
feel like that. And that is what you need in order to evolve as a
fighter (P8).
Previous research in MMA supports this finding--that pain is
necessary to instill confidence in MMA fighters. Specifically, Green
(2011) reported that pain provided confidence in training amongst MMA
athletes, and entrusted them with the belief that the skills learned in
training would transfer outside of the training environment. Thus, the
use of simulation training while teaching appropriate self-talk and
cognitive reframing strategies may be an effective way to enhance the
confidence of an MMA participant.
Self-talk and cognitive reframing strategies were also important to
developing confidence for participants in the current study, yet were
cited as both facilitative and inhibitive of performance goals. For
example, one participant reported using the mantra, "I will not be
beaten, I will not be broken (P7)" in an effort to overcome pain
and discomfort during a competition, while another participant reported
convincing himself he was going to lose due to the perceived pressure of
the event (P5). Thus, it appears that, while self-talk can be beneficial
for MMA fighters, there is a need to systematically train self-talk in
an effort to optimize both self-regulation and performance
(Hatzigeorgiadis et ah, 2011).
Strategic planning. Participants also discussed the need for
strategic planning in order to optimally prepare for a competition, and
identified self-evaluation, using film and imagery, goal setting, as
well as preparing a game plan as effective strategies. For example,
self-evaluation was used in conjunction with film and imagery in order
to identify areas of development following a competition:
Yes, as soon as I have a fight, win or lose, we get the tape on it
and we watch it and we analyze it and do the same thing. Because then I
can correct my own mistake (P6). Similarly, another participant noted:
If my cross is not working, I am [going home and] watching videos
of crosses. So as I am driving [to the gym] I am picturing those
videos from the night before.. .1 am trying to mentally get ready
for it (P7).
By evaluating previous competition, MMA fighters were able to more
effectively create game plans to capitalize on their own strengths,
while exploiting their opponent's weaknesses. This process was
facilitated through the use of goal setting, in which participants in
the current study identified a need to set, monitor, and adjust goals
throughout training:
And then the last one is your training and goal setting. You know
however many weeks it may be before your tournament or fight,
you've got to have certain goals. If you have a long time for
training, you need to set goals, you know you are going to have
your couple basic goals, your long-term beginning to end goals. And
then I think it is very important to have certain things that you
want to improve from this week to next week to next week. You know
even from training day to training day ... I want to be able to
learn something that I had no idea about before. Whether it is a
new submission, a new type of reversal, um something that I want to
be able to take out, something I learn week by week (P4).
Fighters in the current study also identified setting short-term,
proximal goals to help motivate them through the rigors of a training
session. As can be seen below, these goals helped participants in the
current study continually challenge themselves and stay motivated
throughout a training session:
So if I am sparring a guy who is maybe smaller and not as good as
me, every round there is a mental thing I have to go through.
Alright, this guy is smaller, I am going to try to out-speed him. I
am going to try to submit him 10 tunes. I am going to try to, maybe
let him attack me the whole time and see if I can defend (P7).
The results reported are consistent with past research on utilizing
psychological strategies for performance. For example, Allami,
Paulignan, Brovelli, and Boussaoud (2008) reported that mental rehearsal
is as beneficial as physical practice when used in high frequency during
a learning task. The use of imagery' to mentally rehearse and
refine a skill, as reported by participants in the current study, has
also been reported as a strategy to self-regulate future behavior in
previous research (Bandura, 1997; Baumeister & Vohs, 2007).
The findings in the current study are also consistent with past
research on goal setting and performance. For example, Locke and Latham
(2006) reported that the use of goal setting can facilitate sustained
effort, increase persistence, and increase motivation. Additionally, the
use of more proximal, or in-the-moment training goals, as reported by
participants in the current study, is supported by past research that
demonstrates when utilizing goal setting, the regulation of motivation
is heavily influenced by goal proximity (Bandura, 1997; Bandura &
Schunk, 1981). Furthermore, and congruent with research in other sport
settings (e.g., Orlick & Partington, 1988), goal setting and ongoing
evaluation were used for self-regulation and reported as keys to success
by participants in the current study.
Conclusion
Results of the current study suggest that using behavioral
processes of change, developing embodied emotions, and using
psychological strategies facilitated the self-regulation and performance
of MMA fighters. Although more research needs to be conducted to better
understand the use of behavioral processes of change in a performance
setting (e.g., sport), Wright, Velicer, and Prochaska (2009) reported
the generalizability and predictive power of Transtheoretical Model
constructs (e.g., processes of change) in multiple behavior change
domains. In an effort to further this line of research, future
researchers are encouraged to examine processes of change both within
and outside of the training and performance environment. For example,
while athletes use specific processes to adhere to training regimens
(e.g., stimulus control), these processes are likely at work in other
areas of life. Thus, an investigation examining the transfer of these
processes from training to non-training domains is warranted. Similarly,
understanding how learning takes place in sport, both physically and
emotionally, provides future areas of research for sport psychology
professionals. While literature exists in the development of body habits
in a sport context (e.g., Spencer 2009; Wacquant, 2004), less has been
written on the development of emotional habits through constant exposure
and training, and how emotional engagement might facilitate this
process. Concomitantly, researchers are encouraged to investigate how
the learning that takes place within the context of training and
competition affects other life domains (e.g., does emotional resiliency
inside the cage transfer to emotional resiliency in domains such as work
and interpersonal relationships?).
The results of the current study also support die existing
literature on the use of psychological strategies for elite sport
performance, and highlight how these strategies are used in a sample of
MMA fighters. That said, more research is needed to examine
self-regulation and the processes of behavior change in the sport
performance domain generally, and in the sport of MMA specifically. As
the sport of MMA continues to grow, research examining the role of
self-regulation in rehabilitation from injury, coping with injuries
during competition (e.g., fighting with a broken limb), controlling
energy during a fight, and dealing with life stressors is also needed.
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Footnote
(1) The sport psychology consultant holds a Doctorate of Education
in Counseling Psychology, is a Certified Consultant by the Association
of Applied Sport Psychology, has consulted in combat sports for over a
decade, and has been part of the sport science team for six Ultimate
Fighter Competition main card fight camps.
William V. Massey
Concordia University Wisconsin
Barbara B. Meyer
University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee
Adam H. Naylor
Boston University
Address correspondence to: William Massey, Concordia University
Wisconsin, Department of Occupational Therapy, 12800 N. Lake Shore
Drive, Mequon, WI, 53097. Email:
[email protected]
Table 1
Demographic profile of MMA participants in the current study
Highest Record at Time
Participant Gender Competitive League of Interview
P1 M Gladiator 5-0-1
Fighting Series
P2 M UFC 6-4-0
P3 M UFC/K1 36-8-1
P4 M Amateur NA
P5 M Bellator Fighting 4-1-0
Championships
P6 F Fresquez Productions 4-2-0
P7 M UFC 12-6-2
P8 M XFO 13-8-0
P9 M Strikeforce 8-4-0
Table 3
Description of the five behavior processes of change
Process Description
Self-liberation Choosing and committing to act
or belief in ability to change
Counter- Substituting alternatives for
conditioning problem behaviors
Stimulus Avoiding or countering stimuli
control that elicit problem behaviors
Contingency Rewarding oneself or being
management rewarded by others for making
changes
Helping Being open and trusting about
relationships problems with someone who
cares