Self-regulation strategies in mixed martial arts.

Massey, William V. ; Meyer, Barbara B. ; Naylor, Adam H. 等

Self-regulation, or the ability of an organism to manage thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, and delay gratification to achieve a longer-term objective, is thought to play a major role in human behavior and performance (Baumeister, 2002; Gailliot & Baumeister, 2007). Researchers have previously proposed various biological, psychological, and environmental factors that may affect an individual's capacity for self-regulation. Among them, Baumeister and colleagues proposed the strength model of self-regulation, in which self-regulation is thought to be a limited resource that is mediated by levels of blood glucose (Baumeister, Vohs, & Tice, 2007; Gailliot & Baumesiter, 2007; Gailliot et al., 2007). Research has supported this notion, as individuals' performance on laboratory tests of self-control decrease with subsequent self-control tasks when compared to control subjects (Baumeister, Bratslavsky, Muraven, & Tice, 1998; Gailliot et al., 2007; Muraven, Tice, & Baumeister, 1998). Furthermore, researchers have demonstrated that tasks of executive functioning, such as the ability to plan and monitor behavior, self-reflect, and use logical reasoning, require self-regulation and that depletion of self-regulation can impair performance in these domains (Schmeichel, Vohs, & Baumeister, 2003).

In examining performance in sport, researchers have demonstrated a connection between the need for self-regulation and sport performance. For example, scholars in the field of sport psychology have provided evidence that an athlete's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are associated with high levels of sport performance (e.g., Gould, Dieffenback, & Moffet, 2002; Gould, Eklund, & Jackson, 1992a, 1992b; MacNamara, Button, & Collins, 2010a, 2010b), and exerting control over these responses requires self-regulation (Baumeister et al., 2007). Researchers have also reported that the ability to delay gratification, which is implicitly connected to one's self-regulatory abilities, is essential to elite performance in sport (Ericsson, Krampe, & Tesch-Romer, 1993; Holt & Dunn, 2004; Wolfenden & Holt, 2005). Furthermore, as it relates to tasks of executive functioning, researchers have shown that attentional control, effective decision-making, planning and monitoring, and ongoing evaluation (Baker, Cote, & Abemethy, 2003; Ericsson et al., 1993; MacNamara et al., 2010a, 2010b; Massey, Meyer, & Naylor, 2013; Orlick & Partington, 1988) are characteristic of high-level performance amongst athletes.

Similarly, commonalities exist between negative states that can affect both self-regulatory abilities and sport performance. For example, athletes in all sports and at all levels of participation regularly encounter stressors that have the potential to affect performance (Hanton, Fletcher, & Coughlan, 2005). According to Lazarus (2000), anticipation of a stressful situation provokes an appraisal of either challenge (i.e., perception that one can meet the demands of the situation) or threat (i.e., perception that one cannot meet the demands of the situation). Recently, Jones, Meijen, McCarthy, & Sheffield (2009) proposed a Theory of Challenge and Threat States in Athletes (TCTS A) hi which resource appraisals, as well as emotional, physiological, and performance consequences varied as a product of whether an athlete appraised a situation as challenging or threatening. In a challenge situation, it was suggested that an athlete displays high levels of self-efficacy, high-perceived control, and increases in sympathetic-adreno-medullary (SAM) activity, all of which are thought to facilitate sport performance. In considering the role of self-regulation, Bandura (1997) proposed that high self-efficacy and perceived control increase one's self-regulatory capacity. Additionally, increased SAM activity increases blood flow to the brain and is associated with higher levels of blood glucose, which can fuel executive functioning (Riby, Law, Mclaughlin, & Murray, 2011). Conversely, Jones and colleagues posited that threat situations resulted in low self-efficacy, low perceived control, and increased pituitary-adreno-cortical (PAC) activity, which can lead to negative emotions, suboptimal levels of performance, and impaired self-regulatory abilities (Bandura, 1997; Baumeister et al., 2007).

Despite the aforementioned links between self-regulatory abilities and sport performance, there is a paucity of literature utilizing self-regulation theory to examine strategies athletes use to manage their behavior during practice and competition. Research in non-sport domains supports the use of humor (Tice, Baumeister, Shmueli, & Muraven, 2007), increased motivation (Muraven & Slessareva, 2003), and behavioral plans (Webb & Sheeran, 2003) to facilitate self-regulation; however, less is known regarding self-regulation in an athletic population. In one study that examined the role of self-regulation in sport, Collins and Durand-Bush (2010) reported that a series of interventions grounded in the Resonance Performance Model (Newburg, Kimiecik, Durand-Bush, & Doell, 2002) improved self-reported group cohesion, self-regulation, and performance across the season of an elite curling team. In another study that examined self-regulation in sport, Massey et al. (2013) utilized a grounded theory methodology and proposed a framework of self-regulation in the sport of mixed-martial arts (MMA). Consistent with the strength model of self-regulation (Baumeister et al., 2007), Massey and colleagues suggested that external training factors such as the need to create an ascetic routine, develop a social support system, and periodize training with appropriate rest periods both required self-regulation and also helped increase self-regulatory capacity among MMA fighters. It was also reported that MMA participants welcomed physical pain and psychological distress as a necessary part of the training process --both of which might play a role in self-regulatory abilities.

While limited in scope and design, the studies conducted by Collins and Durand-Bush (2010) and Massey et al. (2013) provide initial support for the need to enhance self-regulation skills in high performing athletes. In an effort to examine the specific strategies athletes use to enhance self-regulation skills, the purpose of the current study was to examine the use of self-regulation strategies to enhance performance in a sample of MMA athletes.

Methodology

The current study was part of a larger grounded theory project designed to examine psychological performance and self-regulation in MMA. Throughout the research process, the first author was actively involved in the data collection through observation and recording field notes of MMA training and competition sessions, participating in training sessions with participants, engaging in constant dialogue with participants, and conducting formal recorded interviews.

Participants

Nine MMA athletes participated in formal, recorded interviews lasting between 20 and 90 minutes (see Table 1 for demographic information). As an iterative approach was taken to data collection and analysis, one athlete participated in two recorded interviews six months apart to help expand and clarify points raised by previous participants. Additionally, three of the participants were consulted at multiple phases of data collection and analysis to discuss the first author's interpretation of the data, add clarity to concepts, and provide direction for future data collection and analysis.

Procedures

Prior to the start of the study, all procedures were approved by a university Institutional Review Board. The first author then contacted the general manager of an MM A Academy to explain the nature of the study. Upon approval from the staff, and with the knowledge that the first author was entering the field site as a researcher, an unlimited training membership to the Academy as well as the equipment necessary to participate in practice sessions was purchased.

Prior to conducting formal research interviews, the first author spent eight weeks observing MMA fighters at the MMA Academy. Field notes from these observations were used in conjunction with the existing literature in MMA and combat sport to create an interview script that was theoretically sensitive to the population under study. The interview script was then audited by the second author to confirm the questions were consistent with field notes, past research, and the purpose of the project. The original interview script was broad in focus and included questions that allowed MMA athletes to describe the psychological demands of the sport, their preparation for competition, their perceptions of psychological factors in MMA, as well as how the environment plays a role in training (Appendix A). Following each interview, the interview script was amended to address emergent themes in the data, and explore the experiences of the participant.

Data Analysis

A constructivist philosophy (Charmaz, 2000; Smith, 2009; Sparkes 2002) was embraced by the authors of the current study. Data collection and analysis took place over a one-year period in which the first author engaged in participant observation, collected field notes, and had multiple contacts with participants. Following the construction of a grounded theory model of self-regulation in MMA (see Massey et ah, 2013), a hierarchical content analysis was performed to explore self-regulation strategies used by MMA fighters. Data were line coded and inductively analyzed into lower and higher order themes (i.e., processes of change, embodied emotions, psychological skills). Raw data coding and themes can be found in Table 2. Throughout the research process, the second and third authors audited the coded transcripts and served as a critical sounding board to challenge the first author's assumptions and encourage critical thinking (Phoenix & Smith, 2011 ; Sparks & Smith, 2009). Additionally, a peer reviewer with expertise in grounded ethnography audited the data coding and served as a critical sounding board throughout the research process.

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Methodological Rigor

Maxwell (2005) identified eight criteria used in qualitative research designs that enhance the credibility and trustworthiness of one's results (i.e., long-term involvement, rich data, searching for discrepant evidence, triangulation, respondent validation, qualitative comparison, quasi-statistics, an experimental design). In the current study, six of these criteria were addressed. The first author spent over one year at the MMA Academy interacting with participants (i.e., long-term involvement). During this time, the first author took field notes, conducted participant observation and reflected on these experiences, and conducted 10 formal interviews (i.e., rich data). Once new themes and concepts failed to emerge, data were compared with the case notes of a sport psychology consultant working in the sport of MMA (i.e., qualitative comparison). Given that the interview data were congruent with the case notes of the sport psychology consultant1, it was determined that saturation had been reached. Throughout data analysis, the first author also conducted member checks (i.e., respondent validation) to support interpretation of the results and to clarify discrepancies found in the data (i.e., searching for discrepant data). When discrepant data were discovered, the first author collected additional data to aid in analysis and interpretation. Finally, participant observation, formal interviews, member checks, and qualitative comparison allowed for triangulation of the data in the current study (i.e., triangulation), which enhanced the trustworthiness of the results.

Results and Discussion

The purpose of the current study was to examine the self-regulation strategies used to train and compete in a sport environment in a sample of MMA athletes. As shown in Figure 1 and as will be discussed below, results of the current study suggest that the use of behavioral processes of behavior change, development of embodied emotions, and use of psychological strategies played a role in the self-regulation and eventual performance of MMA fighters.

Use of Behavioral Processes of Change

Participants in the current study consistently provided examples of behavioral strategies that were intended to regulate their actions. Stimulus control (i.e., controlling various stimuli in the environment) was a frequently cited strategy for fighters who needed to increase physical training and/or change their diet for a weight cut. As one fighter noted:

   First thing, even now if you go in my house I have pretty much no
   junk food. Never do. Once in a great while I will buy something,
   but if it is not there, you can't eat it. That is the best thing
   (P7).

Another participant utilized stimulus control by actively avoided eating with friends while in training, as he became angry when his friends would eat things he could not.

In addition to exercising control over the stimuli in their environment as a way of regulating behavior, fighters also used forms of counter conditioning (i.e., replacing behaviors with more adaptive behaviors) when training for an upcoming competition. Common examples of this strategy included replacing eating unhealthy food with eating healthy food, replacing leisure time with training, and replacing nights out with friends with staying home and studying film. In an effort to sustain these behaviors, participants implemented contingency management strategies (i.e., a self-reward system) to facilitate self-regulatory abilities throughout training:

   As far as temptation goes, I think it is important with my diet
   that I always have a cheat day. So I am on a diet for six days a
   week and then Saturday is my cheat day. And you know when you have
   something, when there is a light at the end of the tunnel that you
   are looking forward to ... you are not as tempted (PI). The
   importance of giving oneself permission to engage in non-training
   behaviors was

also identified as a reward. As one participant explained:

   You are supposed to occasionally go to a wild party. You know I
   don't drink, but you have to schedule those things in there so you
   don't completely snap. So make sure you do some stupid stuff once
   in a while (P7).

Thus, by building "cheat days" into the diet and training routine, fighters were able to regulate their behavior over longer periods of time, which led to more effective training regimens.

Furthermore, participants in the current study regularly discussed the need for self-liberation (i.e., to fully commit to their training). For some, this was a more transient process as it related to training for a specific bout. For others, however, this commitment went further than any one event. As one participant reported, "... and I have sacrificed and dedicated my entire adult life to this, you know and it is a dream come true. I have always wanted to be a ninja and now I am a real live ninja (P2)."

While an individual commitment to training was needed, establishing helping relationships promoted a sense of community around the stringent lifestyle of MMA training, which also aided fighters' ability to self-regulate:

   Like I said, being in a large fight team where there is always
   someone who is training for a fight at the same time as you. There
   are other people going through the same crap that you are. It's
   like man I am hungry, man I would love to eat, or I would love to
   go out and party but I can't, oh I want to do this but I can't. The
   guys here you know, you are training partners, you are there to
   support each other, there is a good support structure (P1).

The behavioral processes used by athletes in the current study, and reported above, are consistent with processes of change that have been reported by individuals who are undergoing an intentional behavior change in other change domains (Prochaska & Velicer, 1997). In particular, behavior change researchers have noted that stimulus control, contingency management, counter conditioning, self-liberation, and helping relationships (see Table 3) are important processes in a multitude of behavior domains (Bowen, Meischke, & Tomoyasu, 1994; Di Noia, Contento, & Prochaska, 2008; Lowther, Mutrie, & Scott, 2007; Marshall & Biddle, 2001; Massey, Meyer, & Mullen, 2015). The results of the current study are supported by past research, in that fighters who engage in transient behavior change processes to prepare for an upcoming fight (e.g., change in diet, increased training behavior) use similar strategies to those engaging in health related behavior changes. Given that previous research has supported the use of behavioral planning to facilitate self-regulation (Webb & Sheeran, 2003)--as well as the use of processes of change to improve exercise, weight loss, and sport performance--behavioral planning that incorporates the processes of change mentioned above may assist MMA fighters in their self-regulatory abilities.

[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]

Embodied Emotions

Mixed martial arts athletes in the current study reported the need to be physically and emotionally engaged throughout training in an effort to enhance self-regulatory capacity during a competition. Participants reported the need to be both reflexive (e.g., "you don't have time to think, you just react") as well as strategic (e.g., "it is like a full contact chess match") during training and competitions. In reflecting on their experiences, participants noted that the most optimal training for automating these responses were practices that developed the physical and emotional self as one. Thus, practice did not hone the body mindlessly nor did practice teach active emotional regulation. Rather, practice developed a concomitant set of well-ingrained physical habits as well as cognitive and emotional processing skills that allow a fighter to be mentally flexible during the dynamic competition environment (i.e., embodied emotions).

In an effort to create well-ingrained physical responses, participants in the current study noted the need for constant repetition in practice:

   Repetition, Repetition, Repetition. Like, you can go over certain
   scenarios a hundred thousand million times eventually you will
   become accustomed, at least you will get a little bit better at
   dealing with that scenario you know (P2).

In an effort to train one's cognitive and emotional processing skills, practices were often structured in a way that forced participants to actively cope with their emotions. As one participant noted, "A lot of the drills we do, we do limited rest breaks and they have to learn to emotionally get through the stuff, you know what I mean? That is the hardest part (P3)." Similarly, another participant noted:

   Man, it is like stepping into the jungle and accidently peeing on
   the wrong tree. That is what it feels like, like you are in the
   wrong territory ... It is just so intense you have to be ready for
   anything. I mean in here people are jumping off walls and throwing
   strikes from crazy angles. The training is so intense ... (P9)

The use of repetition to hone physical skills, as reported by participants in the current study, is consistent with previous research on combat sports (e.g., Spencer, 2009; Wacquant, 2004). In his study on habit development in a population of MMA fighters, Spencer (2009) discussed the importance of being parrot like during MMA training, as a "parrot does not reflect, it repeats" (p. 128). As Spencer goes on to discuss, constant drilling and repetition is necessary to automate participants' skills prior to competition, as there is little time to think or deliberate once a competition begins.

The use of an intentionally high stress and anxiety-provoking environment to train the emotional self, as reported by participants in the current study, is consistent with research in combat sport as well as other sport settings (Baumeister, 1984; Spencer, 2009). Given that heightened cognitive anxiety has the potential to shift perceptual cues from task-relevant to task-irrelevant stimuli (Eysenck, Derakshan, Santos, & Calvo, 2007), it has been proposed that practicing in an anxiety-producing environment can increase the self-regulation needed to cope with pressure situations. Once again, this process can be seen in the following field note recorded by the first author (August 20, 2010):

   At practice today, coach revealed the following: "I didn't tell you
   this but yesterday I purposefully put you through the ringer. All I
   was trying to do was break you down mentally and try to get you to
   fight with your emotions. I wanted to see if you were tournament
   ready or not. You did very well, did not get emotional at all, so
   good work."

While the quote above mentions not getting emotional, perhaps more salient is the notion that emotional engagement during training can facilitate the development of cognitive control mechanisms that are critical for adapting to the dynamic situations of competition (Blais, 2010). Thus, rather than being devoid of emotion during training, emotional engagement may help an athlete to accept emotional experiences, rather than utilizing resources in an effort to suppress or control emotions. This notion is also congruent with scholars who support the Resonance Performance Model in that remaining engaged in the present is thought to facilitate performance and self-regulation (Collins & Durand-Bush, 2010; Newburg et al., 2002). Similarly, while learning has previously been viewed as either an intellectual endeavor (e.g., remembering the playbook) or physical endeavor (e.g., building muscle memory), scholars have recently begun to demonstrate that learning that incorporates emotion can help an individual develop tacit knowledge that shapes effective decision making and performance (Damasio, 2005; Immordino-Yang & Damasio, 2007; Immordino-Yang & Faeth, 2010). Thus, training in an environment in which constant repetition is conducted in conjunction with emotional engagement allows the fighter's body and mind to react optimally, thereby increasing capacity to self-regulate during competition.

Use of Psychological Strategies

Consistent with previous research (e.g., Hatzigeorgiadis, Zourbanos, Galanis, & Theodorakis, 2011; Meyers, Whelan, & Murphy, 1996), MM A athletes in the current study similarly reported using psychological skills and strategies to improve sport performance. Their experiences using strategies for intensity regulation, confidence building, and strategic planning to aid in self-regulation and improve performance are discussed below.

Intensity regulation. Fighters in the current study reported frequent use of intensity regulation strategies such as deep breathing, imagery, self-talk, music, and meditation. These strategies were often used by MMA participants to manage pain and distress during training as well as the moments leading up to competition. As one participant explained, "For me, it's really just being able to calm yourself down. Put yourself in a place where you need to be, and not freaking out in different scenarios (P6)."

Conversely, other participants took a more structured approach to being able to regulate bodily responses. As one athlete commented:

   Yeah when I do my physical training, I wear a lot of HR monitors.
   So I will do something where I am going to try to get my HR as high
   as I can up, up towards 200, 185, 190 and then it may just be for
   20 or 30 seconds and then I am going to see how quickly I can come
   back down to 120 or 130. And at the beginning of my training it
   might take 90 seconds and hopefully towards the end, after four to
   six weeks that you know I can get back down to 120 in 45 seconds
   (P4).

When probed further on how he was able to reduce his heart rate during these training session, the athlete noted using a combination of deep breathing and relaxing thoughts.

That MMA athletes described intensity regulation as necessary for optimal performance is consistent with other peak performance literature in which athletes have reported arousal and anxiety regulation and the ability to cope well under pressure as necessary for performance (Gould et al., 1992a, 1992b; Greenleaf, Gould, & Dieffenbach, 2001; Krane & Williams, 2009). Similarly, Baumeister et al. (2007) reported that heart rate variability is an indicator of self-regulatory depletion. Thus, the ability to control both physical and psychological responses to competition may have an impact on both self-regulation and performance.

Confidence enhancing strategies. Participants in the current study also discussed the need for confidence to get through the rigors of training and feel ready for a competition. In an effort to enhance confidence in one's abilities, several strategies were employed. One such strategy was to use simulation training, whereby the fighter and his team attempted to mimic the pain and stress of a competition during training periods. Participants often noted that the pain and distress endured during training was worth it, as working through physical and emotional discomfort in practice facilitated confidence in their abilities to do so in a competition. As the fighter quoted below stated:

   So coming down to it, yeah this practice sucked, but coming up to
   the fight you have confidence. I think your confidence stays high
   no matter how crappy a practice was, no matter how hard it was or
   how shitty it was, like your confidence is always going to be up
   because you know your teammates pushed you to a level to make you
   feel like that. And that is what you need in order to evolve as a
   fighter (P8).

Previous research in MMA supports this finding--that pain is necessary to instill confidence in MMA fighters. Specifically, Green (2011) reported that pain provided confidence in training amongst MMA athletes, and entrusted them with the belief that the skills learned in training would transfer outside of the training environment. Thus, the use of simulation training while teaching appropriate self-talk and cognitive reframing strategies may be an effective way to enhance the confidence of an MMA participant.

Self-talk and cognitive reframing strategies were also important to developing confidence for participants in the current study, yet were cited as both facilitative and inhibitive of performance goals. For example, one participant reported using the mantra, "I will not be beaten, I will not be broken (P7)" in an effort to overcome pain and discomfort during a competition, while another participant reported convincing himself he was going to lose due to the perceived pressure of the event (P5). Thus, it appears that, while self-talk can be beneficial for MMA fighters, there is a need to systematically train self-talk in an effort to optimize both self-regulation and performance (Hatzigeorgiadis et ah, 2011).

Strategic planning. Participants also discussed the need for strategic planning in order to optimally prepare for a competition, and identified self-evaluation, using film and imagery, goal setting, as well as preparing a game plan as effective strategies. For example, self-evaluation was used in conjunction with film and imagery in order to identify areas of development following a competition:

Yes, as soon as I have a fight, win or lose, we get the tape on it and we watch it and we analyze it and do the same thing. Because then I can correct my own mistake (P6). Similarly, another participant noted:

   If my cross is not working, I am [going home and] watching videos
   of crosses. So as I am driving [to the gym] I am picturing those
   videos from the night before.. .1 am trying to mentally get ready
   for it (P7).

By evaluating previous competition, MMA fighters were able to more effectively create game plans to capitalize on their own strengths, while exploiting their opponent's weaknesses. This process was facilitated through the use of goal setting, in which participants in the current study identified a need to set, monitor, and adjust goals throughout training:

   And then the last one is your training and goal setting. You know
   however many weeks it may be before your tournament or fight,
   you've got to have certain goals. If you have a long time for
   training, you need to set goals, you know you are going to have
   your couple basic goals, your long-term beginning to end goals. And
   then I think it is very important to have certain things that you
   want to improve from this week to next week to next week. You know
   even from training day to training day ... I want to be able to
   learn something that I had no idea about before. Whether it is a
   new submission, a new type of reversal, um something that I want to
   be able to take out, something I learn week by week (P4).

Fighters in the current study also identified setting short-term, proximal goals to help motivate them through the rigors of a training session. As can be seen below, these goals helped participants in the current study continually challenge themselves and stay motivated throughout a training session:

   So if I am sparring a guy who is maybe smaller and not as good as
   me, every round there is a mental thing I have to go through.
   Alright, this guy is smaller, I am going to try to out-speed him. I
   am going to try to submit him 10 tunes. I am going to try to, maybe
   let him attack me the whole time and see if I can defend (P7).

The results reported are consistent with past research on utilizing psychological strategies for performance. For example, Allami, Paulignan, Brovelli, and Boussaoud (2008) reported that mental rehearsal is as beneficial as physical practice when used in high frequency during a learning task. The use of imagery' to mentally rehearse and refine a skill, as reported by participants in the current study, has also been reported as a strategy to self-regulate future behavior in previous research (Bandura, 1997; Baumeister & Vohs, 2007).

The findings in the current study are also consistent with past research on goal setting and performance. For example, Locke and Latham (2006) reported that the use of goal setting can facilitate sustained effort, increase persistence, and increase motivation. Additionally, the use of more proximal, or in-the-moment training goals, as reported by participants in the current study, is supported by past research that demonstrates when utilizing goal setting, the regulation of motivation is heavily influenced by goal proximity (Bandura, 1997; Bandura & Schunk, 1981). Furthermore, and congruent with research in other sport settings (e.g., Orlick & Partington, 1988), goal setting and ongoing evaluation were used for self-regulation and reported as keys to success by participants in the current study.

Conclusion

Results of the current study suggest that using behavioral processes of change, developing embodied emotions, and using psychological strategies facilitated the self-regulation and performance of MMA fighters. Although more research needs to be conducted to better understand the use of behavioral processes of change in a performance setting (e.g., sport), Wright, Velicer, and Prochaska (2009) reported the generalizability and predictive power of Transtheoretical Model constructs (e.g., processes of change) in multiple behavior change domains. In an effort to further this line of research, future researchers are encouraged to examine processes of change both within and outside of the training and performance environment. For example, while athletes use specific processes to adhere to training regimens (e.g., stimulus control), these processes are likely at work in other areas of life. Thus, an investigation examining the transfer of these processes from training to non-training domains is warranted. Similarly, understanding how learning takes place in sport, both physically and emotionally, provides future areas of research for sport psychology professionals. While literature exists in the development of body habits in a sport context (e.g., Spencer 2009; Wacquant, 2004), less has been written on the development of emotional habits through constant exposure and training, and how emotional engagement might facilitate this process. Concomitantly, researchers are encouraged to investigate how the learning that takes place within the context of training and competition affects other life domains (e.g., does emotional resiliency inside the cage transfer to emotional resiliency in domains such as work and interpersonal relationships?).

The results of the current study also support die existing literature on the use of psychological strategies for elite sport performance, and highlight how these strategies are used in a sample of MMA fighters. That said, more research is needed to examine self-regulation and the processes of behavior change in the sport performance domain generally, and in the sport of MMA specifically. As the sport of MMA continues to grow, research examining the role of self-regulation in rehabilitation from injury, coping with injuries during competition (e.g., fighting with a broken limb), controlling energy during a fight, and dealing with life stressors is also needed.

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Footnote

(1) The sport psychology consultant holds a Doctorate of Education in Counseling Psychology, is a Certified Consultant by the Association of Applied Sport Psychology, has consulted in combat sports for over a decade, and has been part of the sport science team for six Ultimate Fighter Competition main card fight camps.

William V. Massey

Concordia University Wisconsin

Barbara B. Meyer

University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee

Adam H. Naylor

Boston University

Address correspondence to: William Massey, Concordia University Wisconsin, Department of Occupational Therapy, 12800 N. Lake Shore Drive, Mequon, WI, 53097. Email: [email protected]

Table 1
Demographic profile of MMA participants in the current study

                       Highest                Record at Time
Participant   Gender   Competitive League      of Interview

P1              M      Gladiator                   5-0-1
                         Fighting Series
P2              M      UFC                         6-4-0
P3              M      UFC/K1                     36-8-1
P4              M      Amateur                      NA
P5              M      Bellator Fighting           4-1-0
                         Championships
P6              F      Fresquez Productions        4-2-0
P7              M      UFC                        12-6-2
P8              M      XFO                        13-8-0
P9              M      Strikeforce                 8-4-0

Table 3
Description of the five behavior processes of change

Process           Description

Self-liberation   Choosing and committing to act
                  or belief in ability to change

Counter-          Substituting alternatives for
conditioning      problem behaviors

Stimulus          Avoiding or countering stimuli
control           that elicit problem behaviors

Contingency       Rewarding oneself or being
management        rewarded by others for making
                  changes

Helping           Being open and trusting about
relationships     problems with someone who
                  cares