Integration of christianity in research and statistics courses.

Ripley, Jennifer S. ; Dwiwardani, Carissa

Teaching pedagogy and praxis on the integration of research skills with Christianity are introduced with practical classroom strategies. The authors discuss the purpose of Christian integration in statistics and research design courses as a spiritual and scientific endeavor. They discuss how they address students' attitudes towards research with respect for their faith and cultural traditions. The development of research skills and personal virtue character development are a third theme.

When discussing Christian integration with psychology, we have often overheard our peers say, "Integration is essential for training in psychology, but we know that in statistics and research, you can't really do it." As professors teaching statistics (Ripley) and research design (Dwiwardani) to doctoral students in Clinical Psychology we would argue that this is minimizing what is possible. We posit that Statistics and Research courses are an ideal place for Christian integration in terms of-course material and character development. Statistics and research design courses allow us to think differently about Christian integration. We want to give credit to the work of Paul Poelstra (2009), who taught statistics at Biola for almost forty years to hundreds of students, and Everett Worthington, Jr (2010), a thoughtful faculty member at Virginia Commonwealth University addressing the relationship between faith and the science of psychology.

Poehtra's (2009) article on faith-praxis for research courses is the only previous published article specific to these course-types, despite them being required at practically all undergraduate and graduate Christian colleges. Worthington's research-focused book (2010) on integration is unique because most writing on integration is focused on theoretical integration. In this article we are going to "peel back the lid" of how we do integration in statistics and research design courses. We want to offer ideas of things we do in the classroom, and the way we think about our Christian integrative work. We hope to offer some practical tips and ideas for our fellow teaching and researching professors. We address three issues for integration in these courses:

(1) Why integrate faith and learning in research?

(2) Addressing attitudes towards research.

(3) Research as a character-building opportunity.

Why Integrate Faith and Learning in Research?

The integration of faith and learning in research begins with the question of why: from a biblical perspective, why does it matter that one learns about research? Our students often start class with this question. We address it by highlighting general revelation and special revelation as sources of truth. To highlight this principle, one of the verses I (Dwiwardani) present at the beginning of the semester in research design is Psalm 19:1-4, as follows:

1 The heavens declare the glory of God;
the skies proclaim the work of his hands.

2 Day after day they pour forth speech;
night after night they reveal knowledge.

3 They have no speech, they use no words;
no sound is heard from them.

4 Yet their voice goes out into all the earth,
their words to the ends of the world.

Upon presenting this passage in class, I facilitate a class discussion on general revelation as a legitimate source of knowing God. I propose to the class that one answer to the question of "why research design matters" is that it provides us opportunities to come into a deeper worship of our God. As we wrestle with the revelation of knowledge in research, we learn more about the Creator much like we may learn about Rembrandt from his artwork. This passage invites us to engage with research from a place where we allow ourselves to be surprised by our findings and to be moved and awed by the greatness of our God. Just like we may find ourselves exclaiming in worship and awe as we encounter the greatness of God at the Grand Canyon, one may also find that we are moved by the greatness of God in the scientific discovery process.

Another reason why Christians engage in the study of research and statistics is because we "live in a society that emphasizes and values those aspects of life that can be measured" (Poelstra, 2008, P. 4). In studying research and statistics, Christians are equipped with the tools they need to critically think about research. Since research is often seen as the superior (if not the ultimate) source of truth--Christians would be better equipped in engaging with truth-seeking if they learn how to discern good research (Poelstra, 2009). One of our objectives for educating students is to assist them in becoming leaders who will influence the world around them for healthy, positive, and virtuous ideas. Being conversant in research is necessary to have a "seat at the table" of the conversation of ideas. In particular, research is the way that the field of psychology engages in a dialogue about what is true, what is good, what is healthy, and what is beneficial.

One point of caution that Poelstra (2008) offers on this topic is that as Christians, we need to be mindful of realities beyond those which can be measured. While being well-versed in dialogue on matters that can be measured, Christians affirms other sources of truth and maintains a posture of humility and reverence in the awareness of matters beyond measurement (Poelstra, 2008). For example, in working with human subjects, Christian researchers acknowledge the irreducible humanity and the presence of the soul--the essence of which are not measurable (Poelstra, 2008). Christian researchers acknowledge the limitations of science and research, while cherishing the value they can offer in engaging with general revelation and exercising God's kingdom on this earth (Poelstra, 2008). The integration of faith in psychological research could offer a buffer against the fallacy of idealizing science as the only way of knowing truth. As Stanton Jones asserts, in dialoguing with each other, psychological science and religion are each given an opportunity to "exhibit a certain epistemic humility" (1994, p. 189). While retaining distinct characteristics of each field, psychology and religion can enrich each other in their respective domains of study.

Attitudes: Tensions in Science and Religion

It is not unusual for many students to have discovered that there is a tension in our society between science and religion. This narrative continues in popular vernacular in discussions about global warming, same sex marriage, abortion, and most other "hot topics" in our culture. Scientific findings are often pitted against Christian ethics. Since research is valued in many cultures, there is a tension there. Christian students new to integration may find themselves wondering "Why even bother learning research skills, when it's an alternative god to the true God? All I need to know about the world (of psychology) can be found in Christian texts and teachings." Our doctoral students rend to be too well-healed than to say something so blunt, but still often do not start with pro-science attitudes. They may worry about scientific findings that appear to be at odds with Christian ethics or teachings. They still are not sure how to make sense of all of this.

Prior to proceeding with specific contents and skills in the course, we both find it helpful to address this tension that often takes place in research. In their first year in our program the students take statistics class (Ripley) and the first day of class we engage in a discussion of concerns that many have about science and religion. The principle of "All Truth is God's Truth" means that special/Biblical revelation and general revelation through science can both inform the student in a cooperative, instead of adversarial, way (Worthington, 2010). Students are encouraged to have courage (a trait that is helpful in statistics class!) when facing scientific findings that appear at odds with Christian ethics and teaching. Sometimes Christian teachings need to be revisited, such as the medieval teaching that the earth is the center of the Universe. More modern examples may be child discipline or psychotherapy techniques. These teachings are not essentials of the faith, or even directly taught in Scriptures. We as humans are left to discover these general revelations as a researching community. In fact, we have the privilege of participating in the work of revelation by engaging in research.

Early in the semester we discuss how science can help to be a "check" or balance on Christian teachings. Christians' rejection of scientific findings demonstrates an incomplete understanding of the Bible itself, since the Bible affirms general revelation as a source of truth. On the other hand, science can be incomplete and is always evolving. Science is a progressive activity such that early findings should be held loosely, interpretation of science can be difficult, and science may not be the determining factor for ethics. Regardless of a biblical or research basis, truth-claims can be over-generalizations. As seekers of truth, therefore, Christian researchers are encouraged to maintain a posture of both humility as well as a capacity to tolerate ambiguity and seek understanding of grey areas.

A third discussion about attitudes towards research on the first day of statistics class helps students discuss cultural factors that influence research attitudes. The Christian faith exists within a cultural context. Understanding how one's cultural experiences can mix with religious faith is an important understanding of the self. We discuss how some groups have been damaged by science in the past, such as the Tuskegee Syphilis experiments (Fairchild & Bayer, 1999) or the research experiments on Native Americans (Hodge, 2012) that damaged the relationship between African Americans or Native Americans and scientists for decades. A review of the Scopes trial, and similar public culture war issues, is another way to help students understand how religious ideas are nested within cultural and historical understandings of faith and science. In this way, the actions of scientists and religious leaders can be reviewed and discussed as a lesson in cultural tensions and in the difficulty of rebuilding trust in research for minority groups, and Christian groups.

This discussion culminates in a call for students to become a "bridge-builder" between the best of science and psychological stakeholders. I (Ripley) posit a vision of being a humble and courageous psychological researcher who can communicate to various constituencies the truths of Christianity and the truths of science for the betterment of communities and individuals.

Students at Regent University then take Research Design in their second year and this topic is addressed again in a different way with Dr. Dwiwardani. I (Dwiwardani) draw from Narramore (n.d.) who addresses this tension by using the Johari window as a method to help students distinguish data from interpretation. The two columns in Figure 1 consist of "biblical data" and "biblical interpretation," whereas the two rows list "scientific data" followed by "scientific interpretation" (Narramore, n.d.). On the first cell, where "biblical data" meets "scientific data," the cell states "no conflict" (Narramore, n.d.). On the other cells, where data meet interpretation, the cells state "potential for conflict" (Narramore, n.d.). Since God is the source of all truth, what is truly factual would not be in conflict with one another--when a Christian encounters research findings that are in conflict with biblical data, he continues to press on in his truth-seeking endeavors, all the while purifying his understanding of both biblical hermeneutics and scientific methodologies. The uncomfortable tension of learning about research that may at first appear at odds with traditional Christian principles can lead to a deeper understanding of both. The Johari window put forth by Bruce Narrarnore (n.d.) can be helpful in highlighting the need to challenge ourselves towards excellence in both our scientific endeavors as well as our biblical understanding when encountering conflicts.

FIGURE 1

Johari Window of Data and Interpretation

                          Scientific Data        Scientific
                                               Interpretation

Biblical Data            No Conflict         Potential Conflict

Biblical Interpretation  Potential Conflict  Potential Conflict

It is important to note that the use of the word data in this context is to represent objective truth in an aspirational sense. When engaging with truth and knowledge, we bring our assumptions and cultural presuppositions (Jones, 1994); as such, we only "see in a mirror, dimly" (1 Corinthians 13:12 English Standard Version) and continually acknowledge potential limitations in our epistemology. On this point, we encourage students to engage with a diverse body of scientists and believers, challenging each other's assumptions and encouraging one another to dig deeper in the knowledge of both the Bible and psychological science.

In an article addressing the faith-praxis integration in research design and statistics, Poelstra (2009) describes a class activity highlighting the sacred-secular split, by asking students to list things that are considered spiritual and activities that belong to other areas of life. In engaging students in this exercise, he explains that all of life is sacred--more specifically, all of life provides training opportunities for the soul (Poelstra, 2009). He cites C. S. Lewis in emphasizing that all we do in life either orients our hearts to God or away from God (Poelstra, 2009). This exercise is then followed by a challenge for students to apply this principle onto the study of research and statistics (see Poelstra, 2009). While research and statistics, as compared to some other sub-fields of psychology, may present more challenges to the project of integrating faith and learning, these studies also provide opportunities to learn the principles of integration in other domains in which theological integration may not come as naturally. Through teaching students how to be mindful of their soul in research and statistics, Poelstra (2009) teaches students the discipline of orienting one's soul toward God in all domains of life.

Devotionals as continued learning opportunities.

Our classes begin each week with a brief devotional and we attempt to make the devotional relevant to the course content when possible. In statistics and research design this may not be readily apparent--what does God have to do with an ANOVA or randomization of participants to study groups? We still posit that there is a plethora of material for class devotionals relevant to research and statistics which we describe below and list additional ones in Table 1.

In research design, I (Dwiwardani) use passages that address the disclosing of truth through general revelation, and the devotionals I present in class often include quotes from J. P. Moreland's (1997) book, Love Your God with All Your Mind. In his book, Moreland highlights important principles in engaging with scientific endeavors as a way to glorify God. For example, I present the following quote: "The spiritually mature Christian is a wise person.. .Wisdom is the application of knowledge gained from studying both God's written Word and His revealed truth in creation" (Moreland, 1997, p. 39).

To prompt class discussions, I would ask students questions, such as the following: What do we typically think of when we think of the spiritually mature person? Does our image of spiritual maturity typically involve someone who is savvy in research and scientific methodologies? Why or why not? This exercise further addresses the false split between spirituality and scientific endeavors.

In statistics class, my (Ripley) favorite devotional asks students whether God is God over order or chaos? Statistics attempts to find patterns in data, to detect order. This would seem like "God's work" and some previous mathematicians have proposed that math is actually searching for the patterns of God (Nickel, 2001). Then, I introduce how order can also be corrupted with a picture of Nazi German troopers in perfect goose step. So I challenge them to think that God is more than an ordering agent. God is also the God of outliers, a research topic well-discussed in a popular book (Gladwell, 2008). The conclusion is that we shouldn't look just to the patterns and order to find God, but also to the outliers and the unexpected data to find truth. I encourage students to dig deep into their data, discover the outliers and sometimes examine them for hidden scientific truths.

I also encourage students to apply this principle of examining outliers in their personal lives when it comes to the unexpected. I share the story of when several family members and my closest friend had cancer at the same time. This "off road" life experience was one the richest spiritual growth times in my life. While it was unexpected, a statistical outlier, it contained hidden beauty.

In research design, a devotional I (Dwiwardani) have enjoyed is discussing the asymptotic nature of the normal curve. I highlight the infinity of God that is the backdrop to the finite nature of our knowing. As researchers, we are mindful that there is yet so much we do not know, especially in light of God's infinity and the eternity that is placed in human's heart (Ecclesiastes 3:11). While sitting in this tension of knowing and not knowing, Christian researchers are reminded to. engage in their tasks from a place of humility and allow themselves to be surprised by their research findings.

Research as a Character Builder

Students' character development. Like Poels-tra (2009) we also emphasize the great potential for research-related courses for character building in students. Psychology students are rarely excited about taking statistics or research classes. Statistics and research activity are often quite tedious and mundane tasks. It can require considerable effort to think about ideas and concepts differently than in theoretically-based courses, with many students finding they have to devote more time and energy to succeed in a statistics or research course than any other course on their load.

As faculty there is opportunity for character building as well, the material is rarely inherently exciting, students' struggles typically are reflected in faculty course ratings at the end of the semester, and sometimes students will make negative attributions about the faculty member's character based on the content of the course. We want to offer some ideas for addressing character development as part of these courses, and our own character development as faculty as well.

At the conclusion of the research design course, I (Dwiwardani) present an article from The New York Times revealing the fraud committed by a psychology researcher (Carey, 2011). In reflecting on the case through class discussions, students are reminded of the importance of being mindful of the state of our hearts when conducting research. Citing John Coe's (2007) paper, Poelstra (2009), addresses the temptation that is often present in conducting research--the pressure to succeed and the temptation to be just a little less forthcoming than one needs to be. In being mindful of the state of one's heart--whether one is oriented toward God or toward self-seeking desires--one learns to safeguard against these temptations in the power of the Spirit. Proverbs 4:23 is useful in closing the reflection, "above all else, guard your heart, for it is the wellspring of life" (Poelstra, 2008). In presenting this verse, students are given the reminder that research and tistics is one domain in the greater project of loving God and loving others.

I (Ripley) have a series of reflections discussed in class on character building nature of engaging in statistics as part of research. Sometimes these are part of class devotionals, and sometimes they are a "stop and discuss" moment during lecture. Table 2 describes a list of character traits relevant to course tasks and responsibilities.

TABLE 2

Virtue Character Development Activities in Statistics
and Research Class

Character Trait                   Course activity

Cooperative,     A small group research project in both courses
Reliable         requires everyone to be reliable and cooperative
                 with one another. Students also have a "brain
                 break" during one difficult stats lecture to
                 engage in a team game "The Human Knot" (easily
                 round with a google search) as a demonstration of
                 cooperation in a group.

Courage          Examinations in statistics/research often involve
                 fear. Students are encouraged to examine their
                 tears, "race their dragons" and not yield to the
                 temptation of self-sabotage. A dragon metaphor is
                 used on occasion as an image on the screen during
                 lecture to remind students of this rheme in
                 statistics.

Gratitude        Gratitude for the opportunity to study, to set
                 time aside in their lives to be students, to
                 learn in a Christian higher education setting and
                 other themes are emphasized in class prayers.
                 Gratitude is also an antidote to complaining,
                 when students often want to complain about the
                 workload or difficulty of tasks they are
                 encouraged CO have gratitude for what they can
                 do, and the opportunities they do have. Students
                 also create an end of semester gratitude project
                 in statistics where they express gratitude to God
                 for the academic year in a collage/ artwork, and
                 the art is digitally captured and turned into a
                 video with music production.

Industrious,     Students are encouraged that "work is not sexy"
Long-suffering   but ir is a demonstration of commitment to the
                 calling God has given them. So they are
                 encouraged to be "faithful in little" (stats labs
                 or tests) so they can be "faithful in much"
                 (their careers).

Inquisitive      Curiosity and discovery are emphasized as a
                 positive character trait to be nurtured and grown
                 as a psychologist in training.

Caring, Loving   Students write their personal prayer requests in
                 a list each week and the list is shared with the
                 class through email co encourage them to care for
                 one another, as Christ cares for them.

Humility         The limitations of research work are emphasized
                 at multiple times, as well as the limitations of
                 our interpretation of both research and Christian
                 teachings. Beliefs and ideas should be approached
                 with an attitude of humility as someone working
                 "in a glass darkly" to understand both special
                 and general revelation (1 Cor. 13:12). In
                 addition, some students are more natural at
                 statistics and research activity than others.
                 Recognizing personal limitations and weaknesses
                 is a key to proper humility, which includes the
                 realistic appraisal of one's skills and
                 abilities.

Our own character development. I (Ripley) began teaching statistics just about two years after beginning as a full time professor. Before that I had taught the "fun" classes of Clinical Interviewing, Social Psychology, Group Therapy and Practica. It was so easy to teach those classes because the students were already interested in them, there was a good deal of previous experiences they could bring to the table and I got to be the "hero" professor. It was enjoyable to guide them through the fun part of their journey of graduate school in courses that are typically "easy A's" (except Social Psychology, but the content is so fun for that class!). Then I taught statistics. One particularly honest student asked me, "What happened to you? Are you OK? You were so nice last semester in Clinical Interviewing." I didn't perceive myself as any different but I was experiencing the fundamental attribution error. They were attributing the content of statistics, which is exact, non-intuitive, difficult material to me as the professor. All of the sudden I was picky, negative, and difficult too!

This difficulty in connecting with the material, then attributing that to the professor also affected their warmth and connection with me. When I teach, I use attachment theory as a classroom principle. I elicit responses from students. I engage in Socratic methods. I have an open-door policy with many students dropping by during office hours. I believe that attachment is necessary for good teaching outcomes, including motivation to learn material. This fundamental attribution error was getting in the way of my students' learning! I wasn't going to stand for that.

When faced with adversity, I had the temptation to blame the students (and I can't say I didn't fall to this temptation at times). It's tempting to think, "They don't understand, they're just students" or "It's the students' fault they aren't getting the material like I want them to. I've been the disgruntled faculty member on occasion. Yet, over the 10 years I have taught this course, I discovered that just as it's the students' challenge to learn the difficult material, it's my challenge and character building opportunity to deliver it. I've challenged myself to improve my teaching pedagogy each semester with such things as jigsaw learning presentations, improved SPSS lab instructions each year, use of Prezi and other cutting edge presentation techniques. This past year, I started an occasional "teach each other" class activity where students took main ideas from lecture and created groups where they used various sources for definition of a concept: a few searching the three textbooks, one through a google search, and one through class lecture notes. I'm considering adding YouTube as a search method next year. Typically 1-2 concepts per class are worth slowing down for in order to make sure we get as varied of learning sources of the idea as possible through this kind of pedagogical technique. All of this is to say that when teaching the most difficult material it is essential to "be on your game" with pedagogy. Being on your game is character building for me as professor.

I (Ripley) also begin my First class with sharing something that keeps me humble: I was a B student in statistics in graduate school. I struggled. I overestimated myself on the midterms ( in each of my statistics classes, as if that's not enough humble pie), performed poorly and had to dig myself out with copious amounts of studying the second half of each semester to obtain a B. Mathematics has always been something I have had to work to achieve. My brain does not naturally see the myriad of patterns and logical consistencies inherently seen by math geniuses. I had performed well in my undergraduate statistics class, which was largely formula-based (I can plug and chug a formula) and so I had overestimated myself in graduate school. I share this to encourage them to exercise humility, which I now exercise more often. I also am working to demonstrate that with hard work, and repeated practice, they can achieve the level of understanding and accomplishment with statistics that is needed for the course, and even for future endeavors like teaching statistics to graduate students!

My (Dwiwardani) journey with teaching began as a graduate student teaching undergraduate statistics. One of the things I immediately became aware of when I began teaching statistics was that being liked was important to me. Having students sit in my class who are frustrated at the material, and at me, stretched me to grow in unique ways. I was challenged to grow in tolerating students' frustration at me while staying alongside them as they wrestled with learning statistics and research. I was very fortunate to have a wise teacher as a mentor when I began teaching, Dr. Paul Poelstra. He sat in my statistics labs and gave me feedback on my classes. In addition to giving me feedback on my pedagogical skills and techniques, he challenged me to reflect on the state of my heart in teaching, on what is important to me and how it impacts my teaching and interactions with students. One of the messages that Dr. Poelstra emphasized in his classes was about being united with Christ in everything that we do (John 15). In becoming aware of the state of our hearts, this opens opportunities for Christ to be invited into the process and to do his maturing work in us.

Another way that I have been stretched in teaching statistics and research is in learning that relationships matter in teaching--this is also another important lesson Dr. Poelstra taught me. He explained to me that the stronger students' relationship with course instructor, the better the quality of their learning in the course (personal communication, October 2008). Therefore, I need to take time to cultivate my relationships with the students. Sometimes this means making more time to tutor them in my office hours, sometimes this means listening to what is going on in their lives. This helps me grow in being mindful of relationships as an inherent part of my job--and in remembering that ultimately, this life is about loving God and loving others, that teaching them statistics or research is simply one way that I engage in this project of loving.

Conclusions

We have attempted to describe how we engage in the integration of faith and learning in statistics and research design. We have outlined reasons for integrating faith into these domains of study, ways to address the faith-and-science split, as well as opportunities for character development through research and statistics. Our aim was to present practical suggestions chat we hope can be implemented in other Christian psychology programs. We believe that the study of research and statistics allows for opportunities to engage with integration of faith and learning, opens up doors to be present with students in unique ways, and creates space for the strengthening of character in students and teachers alike.

Author Information

RIPLEY, JENNIFER S. PsyD. Address: 1000 Regent University Dr, CRB161, Va Beach VA 23464. Title: Professor and Program Director of Psy.D. in Clinical Psychology. Degrees: B.S. (Psychology) Nyack College; M.S & Ph.D. (Counseling Psychology) Virginia Commonwealth University. Specializations: Empirically supported couples therapy and Christian integration.

DWIWARDANI, CARISSA. PhD. Address: School of Psychology & Counseling, Regent University, 1000 Regent University Dr., CRB 188, Virginia Beach, VA 23464. Title: Assistant Professor of Psychology & Director of Psychological Services Center. Degrees: PhD--Biola University; MA--Biola. University; BA--Biola University. Specializations: psychoanalytic psychotherapy, positive psychology, multicultural psychology.

TABLE 1

Devotional or course Discussion Ideas fir Research Design

1. Addressing the wonder of mathematics as inspiring and pointing us to the wonder of God.

2. Discuss engaging in scientific endeavors as glorifying to God. J. P. Moreland's (1997) book, Love Your God with All Your Mind as resource.

3. Prompt class discussion of all of our activity as worship of God. What do we typically think of when we think of the spiritually mature person? Does our image of spiritual maturity typically involve someone who is savvy in research and scientific methodologies? Why or why not?

4. Discussion of the infinity of God contrasted with the finite nature of knowing and discovery.

5. Discuss outliers in research as discovery as an example of how life can appear "unpredictable" and what spiritual and scientific discoveries can come from that phenomenon.

6. Discuss order and apparent chaos in relationship to God's sovereign rule over all things, both the ordered and the chaotic. Discuss implications for spiritual life such as allowing for the unexpected or spontaneity in worship.

7. Discuss how perfect love casts out fear. The fear of statistics can quench the mission and calling God has put on the students' life.

8. The philosophies of pragmatism and materialism as contributors of the philosophies of science can be in contrast with Christian philosophies.

9. Individualism and collectivism as culturally-based philosophies of living can be discussed in relation to research- some of which examines individuals in depth, and others examine collective groups of people.

10. The pattern of pride in ethical violations and dehumanization conducted by scientists, whether the Tuskegee Syphilis experiments, Nazi genocidal experiments, or some historical psychology experiments.

References

Carey, B. (2011, November 2). Fraud case seen as a red flag for psychology research. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/03/health/research/noted-dutch-psychologist-stapel-accused-of-research-fraud.html?_r=-3&

Fairchild, A. L., & Bayer, R. (1999). Uses and abuses of Tuskegee. Science, 284, 919-921.

Gladwell, M (2008). Outliers: The story of success. Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company.

Hodge, F. S. (2012). No meaningful apology for American Indian research abuses. Ethics and Behavior, 22, 431 J144.

Jones, S. L. (1994). A constructive relationship for religion with the science and profession of psychology: Perhaps the boldest model yet. American Aychologist, 49, 184-199.

Moreland, J. P. (1997). Love Your God with All Your Mind: The Role of Reason in the Life of the Soul. Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress.

Narramore, B. (n.d.). The isolation of general and special revelation as a fundamental barrier to the integration of faith and learning. Unpublished manuscript.

Nickel, J. (2001). Mathematics: Is God silent? Vallecito, CA; Ross House Books.

Poelstra, P. L. (2008). PSY 210 Statistics. La Mirada, CA: Biota University.

Poelstra, P. L. (2009). Faith-praxis integration in research design and statistics. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 37, 62-79.

Worthington, E. L., Jr. (2010). Coming to Peace with Psychology. Downers Grove, IL: Intervarsity Press.

Jennifer S. Ripley and Carissa Dwiwardani

Regent University