A relationally integrated systems model for Faith and learning in developmental psychology.

Cook, Kaye V. ; Leonard, Kathleen C.

In writing this paper, we were asked to talk about faith-learning integration within a developmental psychology classroom. For developmental psychologists, integration necessarily takes place on two levels: one's developmental theory, which should apply to faith development as well as development in other areas, and one's developmental practices in the classroom. This complexity is endemic to developmental psychology and yet there is a scarcity of writing from developmental psychologists in the field of integration. This paper therefore has two primary purposes: (a) to introduce a theoretical model (actually a meta-model) of integration that is grounded in the developmental literature and that attempts to capture the complexity of development, including faith development; and (b) to describe pragmatic approaches to integration in the classroom that developmental psychologists typically use.

Within faith-learning integration, there are few models that have emerged from Christian developmental psychologists. Although a course in Developmental Psychology is in the catalog in all but one of the 118 schools in the Council for Christian Colleges and Universities (CCCU.org), none of the authors of the works included in the "Bibliography for the Integration of Faith and Learning" (Dockery, 2007) and only one of the 30 first authors in the "seminal works" (Stevenson, Eck, & Hill, 2007) appears to have been trained in Developmental Psychology. The dearth of theoretical material is a loss given the distinctive approaches within developmental psychology to describing the complexity of our humanness. Perspectives from developmental psychology, if better integrated into the literature, could advance understanding of the process of integration and the whole of the Christian's life. (1)

The American Psychological Association currently defines developmental psychology as the branch of psychology concerned with interaction between physical and psychological processes and with stages of growth from conception throughout the entire life span (including developmental disabilities and animal behavior). Historically, however, the purview of developmental psychology was limited to research and training in children's development. Along with a broader purview, developmental psychology has been transformed by recent advances in genetics, longitudinal analysis, and neuroscience. New, more complex theories have emerged within the field along with these changes: systems approaches, longitudinal methodology, biological advances, and holistic views of person-hood--from which we draw our subsequent ideas.

Developmental psychology introduces unique challenges (as well as contributions) that are the result of asking difficult questions: What is our nature as relational beings? How is Christian maturity and faith development best described? How do we make sense of atypical as well as typical development, spiritually as well as in other areas? How can we best capture the interrelatedness of our biological and psychological natures and their implications for faith development? Theoretically, we propose that these challenges can best be addressed, and the strengths of developmental psychology can best be realized, by a unified paradigm that emerges from relational spirituality and developmental systems theories.

Our purpose is to introduce a paradigm--the integrated systems model of relational spirituality or the relationally integrated systems model. This paradigm unites two perspectives in developmental psychology, one that is primarily drawn from the integration literature (relational spirituality) and the other from developmental psychology (developmental systems). Our integrated paradigm provides a strong framework for conceptualizing development in general, and faith development in particular. We will then apply this paradigm to teaching in developmental psychology classrooms. In order to clarify its use, we will first summarize responses about current practices in developmental psychology classrooms, given in response to a survey we distributed to faculty in schools in the Council for Christian Colleges and Universities (CCCU). These practices are consistent with the paradigm we present but can be developed further. We will then close with some additional recommendations and suggestions about integration that are consistent with this theory and important for the practice of integration. We focus our ideas for those teaching in a Christian college context but hope that instructors at secular institutions and in graduate classes may also find some helpful ideas here.

Relational Spirituality

A major component of our model is relational spirituality. Relational spirituality generally refers to one of two theoretical approaches that are grounded in attachment theory and that recognize the import of parental and other relationships for long-term development, particularly religious and faith development. Two major approaches to understanding relational spirituality have emerged within the integration literature, both of which are significant contributions to the field. In each approach, integration begins with embodied (lived-out) experience.

One approach, which is most often applied to understanding the long-term effects of one's relationships with parents and with God, is represented by Hall and his colleagues (Hall, 2004; Hall, 2007a, 2007b; Hall, Fujikawa, Halcrow, Hill, 8z Delaney, 2009; Hall & Maltby, 2014; Sorenson, Derflinger, Bufford, & McMinn, 2004). These authors have done impressive work within the psychoanalytic tradition by framing a "relational integration" theory of relational spirituality that is particularly applicable to therapy within the psychoanalytic tradition. They harness the powerful paradigm of attachment theory to describe spiritual formation in the context of a secure attachment with God and suggest interventions to encourage healthy relationships. Solidly developmental in its focus on attachment, the theory is otherwise limited in its developmental scope and there is significant potential for expansion.

The second perspective, represented by the work of Balswick, King, and Reimer (2005) and Shults and Sandage (2006; Sandage & Shults, 2007), is also grounded in the attachment literature but takes into account other contexts (e.g., historical, cultural) that lead to bio-psychosocial and spiritual development. Clinical applications are less commonly explored within this perspective. Theories other than attachment theory--for example, the cognitive-developmental theory of Piaget. Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, and the constructive-developmental theory of Kegan--are integrated into a larger model. With mature development, these relational theorists suggest, the individual ego (i.e., the infant's sense of self) differentiates from parents and others, and the resulting experiences of attachment and separation during childhood and adolescence become appropriately synthesized into a "reciprocating self' (i.e., an ego that is able to balance dependence and independence and thus develop maturity). This second perspective suggests careful attention to a range of historical and contextual variables that may shape development, in addition to attachment.

We appreciate the value that these two perspectives place on the attachment relationship, and on early embodiment, and intend our model to similarly privilege attachment in bio-psychosocial and spiritual development. It is for this reason that our model is named a " relationally integrated " model. We also recognize that another strong research thread within contemporary integration is cognitive development (2) and think that the second paradigm of relational spirituality gives more space to this thread, (3) and appropriately so. Further, we value historical and cultural influences on development, and think that an appropriately complex model of development has to allow space for these.

Developmental Systems Model

The developmental systems model (Lerner, 2002; Lerner, Alberts, Anderson, 8c Dowling, 2006) forms the second component of our model. This systems paradigm has a great deal of research support, particularly within life span psychology and developmental disabilities. From this paradigm, an individual's development is understood to be a function of interactions among many factors--historical and cultural, as well as biological and psychological perspectives. No one theoretical model best describes these interactions, and various theoretical perspectives can and should be used. Thus, some favor a psychoanalytic model, particularly when addressing issues of attachment and its many developmental and therapeutic implications, and others favor a cognitive model, particularly when exploring children's magical thinking and understanding of God. Developmental systems theory does not try to integrate the particulars of these models with one another, or choose one over the other, but instead to seek a higher-order unity by pursuing an appropriately complex view of the person as having a history, living in context, and constantly changing. The model is therefore often called a meta-model, meaning that it is one that gives place to multiple models of development.

Development is best understood systemically, according to the developmental systems model, and children develop in context. A child is part of a system that is made up of caregivers, relationships, and contexts that change epigenetically as the child ages. (4) Developmental systems theory replaces the dichotomies of nature and nurture, biology and experience, with more complex, dynamic understandings. Some individuals, for example, show greater resilience (i.e., coping) under stress than others, in a way that appears inbuilt (nature), and resilience can potentially be strengthened by contextual experiences (nurture). Both influences are continuously operating and cannot be separated from one another. Each of the popular developmental theories (e.g., psychoanalytic, cognitive) contributes to our understanding. In addition, we should be exploring historical, cultural, longitudinal, and biological questions. This paradigm, though broad, appears more true to the systemic, historical, and contextual nature of development.

Relationally Integrated Systems Model as Applied to Faith Development

Development begins relationally, with the child as part of a system. Early attachment experiences are pivotal for the child's long-term, positive engagement with his or her world, but later experiences can sometimes compensate for early experiences that might otherwise have had more negative effects. The child's system changes over time, and the child develops in multiple ways (e.g., socially, emotionally, cognitively, and biologically) while changing and being changed by the context. Although developmental maturity is difficult to define, some characteristics of development are normative and optimal, and there may be several definitions of maturity that capture these optimal characteristics, not just one definition.

Faith development also begins relationally. The child is part of a system that, over time, helps a child to understand who God is. Human development across domains is congruent and has integrity, influencing development in all areas at once. Thus, development in religious understanding occurs in tandem with social and cognitive development, and changes in religious behavior and attachment reinforce and influence one another. As an individual matures, one's self, one's relationships, and the sacred are understood in new, more complex ways. A child's socio-emotional and cognitive engagement with the world, both in the past and present, are integrated into a continuously unfolding trajectory of individual spiritual development (Balswick et al., 2005; Majerus & Sandage, 2010).

In the preceding paragraphs, we have outlined a relationally integrated systems model as a way to think about integration between developmental psychology and faith, and as a theoretical model within developmental psychology that does justice to development in general and faith development in particular. We have tried to highlight some specific elements in this model:

* Integration begins with embodiment; observation of behavior (any behavior, not just religious behavior) should be part of every faith-centered developmental psychology classroom, if possible.

* Faith development is relational; the attachment model is foundational for understanding development in general and faith development in particular (but other models also matter).

* Faith development matures; the cognitive model helps us capture important developmental changes.

* Children, adolescents, and adults participate in systems, which shape their development and their expressions of faith.

* Faith development is historical and contextual, with various influences (e.g., personality, family characteristics, church experiences) reciprocally shaping emerging faith.

* Faith development is a function of the combined effects of biology, experience, and a child's engagement with his or her environment, suggesting that, for example, the negative effects of early insecure attachment or a conflict-driven church environment can potentially be ameliorated by later experiences of safety and trust.

We recognize that this is a complex meta-mod.el. However, this complexity is offset by its emphasis on exploring spiritual and other components of development in a way that is not reductionistic and does justice to the centrality of embodiment in faith development.

Practices of Integration in Developmental Psychology Classrooms

We will make other comments about our perspective below but, consistent with our own sense of being embedded in a larger context and culture, we thought it would also be helpful to get a better understanding of the approaches of others in the field of developmental psychology to integration. Therefore, in the spring of 2013, we authors sent out an online survey to appropriate individuals (deans, department chairs, or developmental psychology faculty) from as many of the 118 Council of Christian Colleges and Universities (CCCU) campuses as possible. We thank each person who responded and will describe the responses we received. Each of these practices is good, we think, and has a place in a developmental psychology classroom that uses a complex meta-model such as ours. We will end by framing issues of importance within the field from a relationally integrated systems perspective, using the three topics of genetics and prenatal testing, adolescent sexuality, and spiritual formation as our focus. This is a work in progress, and there are many good ideas out there, most of which we haven't yet heard. Our project is ongoing, and we'd love to hear from you.

The survey was distributed by SurveyMonkey() to 121 recipients at 98 of the 118 colleges in the CCCU. In addition to demographic questions, the survey was made up of 11 integration questions, for example: What is your overall approach to integration? Do you have specific texts relevant to the topic? Do you require students to complete any faith-integration assignments? Are there certain developmental topics that lend themselves to integration or that you avoid? We recognize that those who responded were likely to be individuals who have thought about these issues and care deeply about them, but we were nevertheless impressed with the quality of responses. We have borrowed from their ideas both in the introduction to this paper and its conclusion, as well as the table of resources at the end. (5)

Twenty-three people from 21 different institutions responded to the survey, a 19% response rate, and we received seven syllabi from various developmental courses. Respondents described 43 courses, of which 12 were traditional (i.e., child) developmental psychology courses, 18 covered the lifespan, seven addressed adolescent psychology, five covered adulthood and aging, and one was a course in developmental disabilities.

Overall approaches to integration. When asked to summarize their overall approach to integration, we found three groups of responses: not integrative (n = 0), minimally integrative (n = 7), and organically integrative (n = 16). Every course addressed substantive issues with careful consideration of their implications for faith and psychology and thus none were coded in the first category. The minimally integrative coding included those who begin classes with prayer (without any statement about a larger model, the limitations of this practice, or the potential dualism it implies) and who describe integration as "spontaneous" and inherently implied by any discussion of human persons, without reference to any more complex or larger model or the literature. We also included in this category those who referred to their college mission statement without presenting any further ideas on integration, a response that was coded 2 instead of 3 because a requirement that classes include integration does not mean that integration takes place. The numbers in this category may be inflated because we asked for busy participants to respond to an online survey, surely increasing the brevity of responses. Organically integrative courses, described in the majority of responses we received, included those with more fully developed descriptions of their approach to integration. Coding by the two authors was done separately, with differences resolved by consensus, and is meant to give an overall sense of the responses that we received.

We were struck by the humility in the responses. Participants in several instances mentioned their desire to do more, their eagerness to learn from others, and their feelings of inadequacy in the process. Faith-learning integration is a challenging process, and we offer our ideas to others, in hopes that our shared experiences will help to enrich the integration process for us all.

Integration in the syllabus. Integration issues are often highlighted in the syllabus, as was reported by 61% of the survey participants. Verses from Psalm 139 and/or others that highlight God's love for us from the womb and that relate to development are often cited. In addition, faculty members sometimes desire (according to class objectives) to change student worldviews ("examining issues from a Christian faith

perspective " ) or encourage student growth ("it is my hope that each of you will be challenged and rewarded in your faith development " ). Another respondent cited the future "families and ministries" of her students. Only one person mentioned service-learning opportunities, experiences that can be transformative for student growth even though they are challenging to incorporate into the class.

A specific integration component. When asked whether they teach their course with a significant integration component, 77% (18/23) said yes. The thoughtfulness of integration for many was captured by one extensive quote with which we agree:

  In my teaching of this course, it is easy to point to God's handiwork
  and bring in several Scriptures around prenatal development and the
  miracle of birth and the changes within the heart and lungs. However,
  [I do more than just make] these direct connections ... my overall
  approach is to try and find natural extensions and applications from
  an academic viewpoint through using Scripture and readings by
  Christian thinkers, and to ask students to think through their own
  responses to controversial areas.

Specific readings about faith. When asked for specific readings that they use that make reference to God, creation, or faith, several people mentioned that they use the Bible in class. Two people also mentioned Osborne's (2005) book, What Mary and Joseph Knew About Parenting: Shepherding a Child's Heart. An additional individual talked about using material from the Center from Parent/Youth Understanding website (cpyu.org) for her class in Adolescent Psychology. Other similar websites include the Center for Youth Studies (centerforyouth.org) and the website for the National Study of Youth and Religion (youthand religion.org). Two media possibilities were mentioned: Christian Smith's 80-minutes-long DVD Soul Searching (2008), and the older, charming 30-minute video that was done in the Mormon Church, Mouths of Babes (1986; now available on YouTube).

Faith-integration assignment. More than half of our respondents (57%) require a faith integration assignment, and several others provide an optional assignment. Assignments included asking students to write blogs in response to prompts that may be about a Biblical perspective, a review of research articles using a Christian perspective, or a narrative biography that explores the role of religion and faith in one's life. Several specific assignments included papers or journals, asking students to write a paper on faith development using Erikson or Piaget, or in light of the Amish "Rumspringa" documentary The Devil's Playground (77 min; 2002), or to keep a journal of their questions and struggles. Students might include a paragraph addressing integration issues in a general paper, or write a paper addressing ethical issues for Christians in particular areas. One professor assigns a Biblical Analysis in which students are asked to choose an example of an adolescent in Scripture, detail their struggles, and explore whether and how this example is meaningful for teenagers today.

Faith development section in the class. When asked whether they have a specific section of their that focuses on faith or spiritual development, 39% (9/23) said yes. We encourage others to explore this possibility, thoughtfully and as appropriate. One author teaches a unit on spiritual formation at the end of the semester. She has students read several chapters from Stonehouse (1998) and introduces Fowler's theory. (6) Then she asks students to write a paper to write in which they "consider faith development in light of ideas presented in the course." The prompt is intentionally open-ended. Possible topics include Fowler's theory and how well it describes faith development, teaching teens about God, and attachment and its relationship to mature religiousness, but could be any topic discussed within the class. To receive an A grade, the paper must be thoughtful and academically solid, and keep returning to the themes of the class, presenting them accurately. To prepare students for this assignment, she spends several days in class helping students think about spiritual formation (e.g., with class discussions about Deuteronomy 6 and other Scripture and about the implications of social-cognitive, cognitive-developmental, and Eriksonian theory for faith development strategies). She then does a "Sunday School" lesson during class time that uses Catechesis (i.e., hands-on) materials mentioned in the reading. Papers are due after two weeks of class experiences such as these, which are designed to prepare students to identify and develop their thinking about faith development. (7)

Even though we authors do a faith development section, and encourage consideration of this practice where possible, we also agree with one survey respondent who wisely commented, "If I did a separate segment, it would be less honest." It appears that, for this person as for many, faith discussions are spread throughout the curriculum, and some respondents commented on the spontaneous nature of these cussions and the importance of being open to seemingly random questions from students. Faith discussions particularly appear in discussions of moral development, while less commonly in discussions of cognitive development. Within a unit on cognitive development, one might discuss children's perceptions and understandings of God and contrast these with their understanding of magic (see Barrett, 2012). Also, faith is sometimes introduced while discussing attachment or social relationships, and attachment seems to us an area in which faith development conversations could be expanded. Assignments and discussions may also be age specific. For example, one might choose to discuss children's descriptions of God during childhood, religious identity development during adolescence and emerging adulthood, and health and religious coping during adulthood and aging. For life span courses, discuss changes in religiosity across the life span in context of other developmental changes. One of us has had particular success with a student assignment to interview two individuals from a particular age range and summarize the psychosocial-spiritual issues of that age, using the literature to frame the presentation and the two interviews as examples. After several such class presentations, students can be challenged to identify longitudinal themes and distinctive challenges at different points in the life span.

Theorists. Class discussions about spiritual formation may revolve around particular theorists. In response to the survey, 12 people mentioned a particular theorist, and eight different theorists and/or theories were mentioned. Respondents sometimes mentioned more than one of these. James Fowler (8) and his stages of faith development were mentioned by eight of 12. Piaget's stages (9) can illustrate children's shift from concrete to abstract understandings of God, and Kohlberg's stages of moral reasoning (mentioned by two of 12) can be used to talk about the relationship between faith and morality, and changing attitudes toward societal rules. Students can be encouraged to think about circumstances when God might call us to violate societal rules and also to think critically about why Kohlberg's highest stage does not describe Christian maturity well. (10) Gilligan (mentioned by two of 12) challenged Kohlberg's theory, arguing that women prefer an ethic of care rather than justice. Although her argument is not clearly supported by studies of women's moral reasoning, (11) her emphasis on an ethic of care permeates moral theory. Gilligan's theory can be used to talk about the place of love and justice in faith and morality. Other survey respondents mentioned additional theorists: Freud and Erikson (two psychoanalytic theorists who are particularly helpful in theorizing about the emotional components of faith), Kubler-Ross (who described well-known stages of grief), and Frankl (12) . Fowler's and Erikson's theories are particularly helpful and students respond well to questions of personal application ("In what ways does Fowler describe your experiences of faith? What does he leave out? " ). This strategy provides students an excellent opportunity to internalize and fully grasp the richness of complex ideas, as well as a better understanding of their own journeys.

Topics that lend themselves to integration. When asked whether certain topics lend themselves to faith-learning integration more than others, 91% (21) of the respondents said yes: conception, prenatal development, and genetic testing, as well as parenting and end-of-life issues. Other popular topics included attachment, relationships, love and marriage, moral development, sexuality, identity and adolescence, cognitive development and language, specific God concepts, ethics, and psychopathology.

One topic that should be mentioned more: Cross-cultural development. No one mentioned the challenges of faith-learning integration in a cross-cultural context in response to survey questions; yet, cultural issues are vital to understanding development and central in our model. We should be able to address these issues adroitly. Recent developmental psychology textbooks put increasing emphasis on this topic, and many of our students will engage in mission work. Cross-cultural engagement helps the maturing individual to explore the values of one's own culture and the culture of others, developing a more mature identity.

One author spends two classes during the moral development section of a developmental psychology course engaged in a cross-cultural activity. This activity combines service opportunities and developmental observations (currently with fifth-graders in an inner-city school). Developmental psychology students travel 14 miles to an urban school where they conduct a classroom lesson on character (e.g., being a good team member, taking care of others), while also observing the moral development of fifth graders (carrying out an activity which the professor previously developed). A week later, the fifth graders are bused to campus, where they receive a tour, participate in activities designed to address similar issues of character, participate in either a poetry writing or music experience (also designed to explore character), then share their poetry/ music experiences with one another. The experience is crafted to teach the fifth graders something about character, and to give the developmental psychology students the opportunity to observe the developmental level of fifth graders and their moral development in particular. It is easier to organize than it seems, and students find the experience challenging and provocative. As students engage the cultures of others, differences in understandings of values become obvious. For example, duty is seen in some cultures as a higher good than personal choice, and forgiveness can be understood communally and individually (Cook, Sandage, Hill, & Strawn, 2010; Sandage, Hill, 8c Vang, 2003). Wisdom develops out of these differences by the grace of God, wisdom that is pivotal to developmental maturity (Johnson, 1996; Shults & Sandage, 2006).

Topics that our respondents may avoid. When asked whether they avoid specific topics because the faith-learning integration issues are too complex, 9% (2 individuals) of respondents said yes: LGBT (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transsexual) issues, same sex parenting, and the roots of a homosexual orientation. (13) In addition, one person mentioned avoiding theological arguments and refusing to compare faith traditions. This person also talked about the complicated dangers of proselytizing and of selling a particular ideology.

The question of whether there are specific topics that are, or should be, avoided elicited strong responses. One replied, "That would be a horrible disservice to the students." Another commented, "All integration issues are complex." We encourage professors to think about how to approach the more difficult issues ahead of time, since on-the-spot thinking can be frustrating. If faculty members prefer to delay or avoid Scriptural discussion, they may gauge the interest of the class and organize a debate (by assigning sides and setting aside class time) if it seems wise. They may encourage students to come prepared at the next class period for a short opening essay on their Scriptural thoughts, references and questions (we recommend a maximum of 8 minutes for this), or encourage students to come see them after class. If someone in the class seems particularly anxious to argue theological positions, the faculty member can suggest that the student write a paper on the issues, for extra credit or as an alternative to a class assignment, or meet with the faculty member at another time. It is also often desirable to explore why students are particularly interested in Biblical analysis of the question, since much hurt can lie behind seemingly innocuous classroom questions. In the last analysis, although we encourage individuals to explore difficult topics where possible, we recognize that there is no easy answer, and no topic that has to be talked about.

Student responses to assignments. Because of the nature of the survey, which asked for activities suggested by respondents, we do not generally know how students respond to the assignments that we have recommended above. In our own classes, our experience includes strongly positive student responses, particularly to papers or class discussions that encourage them to think about their own faith and development, class guests that talk about their own experiences, and in-class debates. The Sunday School lesson using hands-on material (described earlier) brings quiet, thoughtful comments, and sometimes a spontaneous Christmas carol; the fifth grade urban exchange program results in strongly positive comments in written journals and from uninvolved individuals who have heard about the experiences. Student responses to overt integration vary by campus and classroom, however, and integration experiences are not always easy or possible to design for classrooms.

Further Practices of Integration in the Classroom

In the previous section, we reviewed integration practices that have been reported to us by developmental psychologists in the classroom. These practices are excellent and we recommend them. Each is consistent with the broad model we take.

Review of the surveys indicated several issues that are particularly vexing or exciting to the respondents, or significant in context of the meta-model we propose. Without trying to give an exhaustive review or to provide answers, we will nevertheless outline some issues to think about: genetics and prenatal development, sexuality, parenting, and emerging adulthood. Our discussion of these issues follows both the practices that have been shared with us, and our own thinking and practice of integration. Materials are also available in Table 1, and we encourage the reader to explore these resources (some of which we gleaned from our survey respondents).

TABLE 1

Resourcesfor Faith-Learning Integration in Developmental Psychology

Topic/Issue            Resource

Developmental          Balswick. J. O. , King, P. E.. 6t Reimer, K.
Psychology Textbook    S. (2005). The reciprocating self: Human
                       development in theological perspective.
                       Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press.

Developmental          Allen, H. C. (Ed.). (2008). Nurturing
Psychology and Faith   children's spirituality: Christian
Integration            perspectives and best practices. Eugene. OR:
                       Cascade. Estep. J. R., & Kim, J. H. (2010).
                       Christian formation: Integrating theology and
                       human development. Nashville. TN: B & H
                       Publishing. Journal of Christian Education,
                       http://www. jcc.org.au/ Kuyers Institute for
                       Christian Teaching and Learning, Calvin
                       College http://www. ealvin.edu/ kuycrs/

Religious and          Center for Parent/Youth Understanding,
spiritual              http://www. epyu.org Center for Youth Studies,
development            http://www. centcrroryouth. org Christensen,
                       T. C. (1986). Mouths of babes [Motion
                       picture]. USA: Visual Transit
                       Authority/Thomson Productions. Available on
                       YouTube. Dowling, E. M., & Scarlett, W. G.
                       (2006). Encyclopedia of religious and
                       spiritual development. Thousand Oaks, C A:
                       Sage Publications. Inc. http:// worldtracker.
                       org/ media/ library/ Reference/
                       Eneyclopedia's/ Encyclopedia%20of-%
                       20Rcligious% 20;ind%2() SpirituaI%20
                       Development.pdf Eaton, T., & Eaton, M. (2008).
                       Soul Searching: A movie about teenagers and
                       God [Motion picture). USA: Revelation Studios.
                       Fowler, J. M. (1995). Stages of faith: The
                       psychology of human development and the quest
                       for meaning. New York, NY: Harper Collins.
                       International Journal of Children s
                       Spirituality, www. tandfonlinc. com
                       /toe/ciic20/ current#. UfWBX03VCSo King, P.
                       E., Clardy. C. F... & Ramos, J. S. (2014).
                       Adolescent spiritual exemplars: Exploring
                       spirituality in the lives of diverse youth.
                       Journal oj Adolescent Research, 29, 186-212.
                       Lcrner, R. M., Roeser, R. W., & i Phelps, E.
                       (2008). Positive youth development and
                       spirituality: From theory to research. West
                       Conshohocken, PA: Templeton Foundation Press.
                       National Study of Youth and Religion,
                       http://www. youthandreligion. org Osborne. R.
                       (2005). What Mary and Joseph knew about
                       parenting: Surprising insights from the best
                       (and worst) parents in the Bible. Nashville,
                       TN: Thomas Nelson. Roehlkepartain, E. C, King,
                       P. E., Wagencr. L M.. & Benson, P. L (2006).
                       The handbook oj spiritual development in
                       childhood and adolescence. Thousand Oaks, C A:
                       Sage Publications, Inc. Smith. C, & Denton, M.
                       L. (2003). Soul searching: V)e religious and
                       spiritual lives of American teenagers. New
                       York: Oxford University Press. Smith. C,
                       Christoffersen, K., Davidson, H., &L Herzog,
                       P. S. (2011). Lost in transition: The dark
                       side of emerging adulthood. New York, NY:
                       Oxford University Press. Stonchousc. C. (1998)
                       .Joining children on the spiritual journey:
                       Nurturing a life offaith Grand Rapids. MI:
                       Baker Books. Stevens, C, Cantor, C, Laikind,
                       D., Goldman, J., Stein, M? & Walker. L.
                       (2002). Devil's Playground [Motion picture].
                       USA: Wellspring.

Genetics and Prenatal  Collins, F. S. (2006). The language of Cod: A
Development            scientist presents evidence for belief. New
                       York, NY: Free Press. Cort.J.. & Nilsson. L.
                       (2Q01). Life's Greatest Miracle [Motion
                       picture]. USA: A NOVA Production WGBH Boston.
                       Human Genome Project. http://ww4v.ornl.
                       gov/sei/techresources/Human_Genomc/ home.
                       shtml Presidential Commission for the Study of
                       Bioethical Issues, http://www.bioethics.gov/

Adolescent Sexuality   The Alan Guttmacher Institute (data on
                       pregnancy, STD's. Contraception, and abortion
                       by region and country), http://www.
                       guttmaehcr.org/ American Society for
                       Reproductive Medicine (Ethics Committee
                       publishes reports on controversial issues),
                       http://www.asrm.org/ Freitas, D. (2008). Sex
                       and the soul: Juggling sexuality,
                       spirituality, romance, and religion in
                       America's college campuses. New York, NY:
                       Oxford University Press. Freitas, D. (2013).
                       The end of sex: Mow hookup culture is leaning
                       a generation unhappy, sexually unfulfilled,
                       and confused about intimacy- New York, NY:
                       Basic Books. Regnerus, M. (2007). Forbidden
                       fruit: Sex and religion in the lives of
                       American teenagers. New York, NY: Oxford
                       University Press. Regnerus, M, &: Uecker.J,
                       (2011). Premarital sex in America: How young
                       Americans meet, mate, and think about
                       marrying. New York, NY: Oxford University
                       Press.

Emerging Adult         Setran, D. P., & Kiesling, C. A. (2013).
.Spirituality          Spiritual formation in emerging adulthood: A
                       practical theology for college and young adult
                       ministry. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic.
                       Smith, C with Christoffersen, K., Davidson,
                       H.,& Herzog, P. S. (2011). Lost in transition:
                       The dark side of emerging adultbood. New York,
                       NY: Oxford University Press. Smith, C, with
                       Snell, P. (2009). Souls in transition: The
                       religious and spiritual lives of emerging
                       adults. New York, NY: Oxford University
                       Press.

Genetics and prenatal development. Roughly 52% of our respondents indicated that prenatal development and genetics are topics that readily lend themselves to discussions of integration. In these surveys, we were frequently reminded of Psalm 139, of the wonder that comes with understanding conception and childbirth, and of the delight we feel in being created in the image of God. These topics provide a natural place to comment on the role and presence of God in child development. The content covered in these areas is largely biological, perhaps more so than other stages of the life span, which might make faith integration discussions more straightforward.

The areas arc nevertheless fraught with ethical issues for the Christian, as is true for much of child development. For example, should mothers participate in prenatal testing, even if abortion is not a personal option, in the hope of providing better perinatal care for special needs children? Should a Christian choose in vitro fertilization, an increasingly common practice in today's world of high infertility rates? These are difficult issues without easy answers. We advocate, where appropriate and within the constraints of time, raising questions such as these in order to help students to better understand why these are problematic for Christians, what the techniques consist of (medically), and (as appropriate) the range of possible Christian responses.

We prefer that students be encouraged to explore questions, without giving hard-and-fast answers, although proposing answers is sometimes good. We find that exposing students to a range of thinking helps students to make their own choices and stick to these choices when they are in less theoretical contexts. Debates might provide useful, such as: "Parents should consider in vitro fertilization--yes or no" or "Prenatal testing for older parents should not be considered" or "Single women (or men) should not adopt children." Divide the class into groups of four, give them a day to prepare (in class or out), and then set aside 20 minutes in class for the debate. Observers can rare the debate (who won, what arguments were convincing to people who agree with the yes position, what arguments were convincing to those who disagree, what evidence did you learn that supports the "yes" position--or "no"). One can also assign papers (e.g., how have cultural attitudes to sexuality changed and how can the church respond, what advice would you give parents of a teenage girl, what is the impact of the school culture on virginity pledges and how can boys be encouraged to stay chaste?). One can also ask individuals or couples to come to class who have chosen not to have children, for example. One can ask a sensitive couples therapist to talk about marriage therapy or parenting interventions, or to talk about rape intervention programs. Parents who have struggled with genetic and prenatal diagnoses, or who have a special needs child, can be asked to come to class. The authors use this technique regularly and often find that it is wise to invite more than one parent or couple to come to class, making conversation easier.

Sexuality. When asked which topics are avoided because they are so complex, most commonly mentioned were homosexuality and same-sex parenting issues. Further, of course, are issues of teen pregnancy, premarital sex, and single parenting. All are difficult topics, which nevertheless predictably engender a great deal of conversation and potentially (depending on the class) a range of opinions.

Taking on these issues depends on many factors, including available time and the faculty member's priorities. However, one should consider carefully the objectives and goals for the course. Developmental courses present an opportunity to help students appreciate sexuality as a gift from God and a healthy aspect of human development. One might use a debate format or a controversial film clip to explore various perspectives that might not be comfortable to explore but nevertheless about which students need to be informed. One author asks students to read summaries of specific research studies in various areas, for example, same-sex parenting, in vitro fertilization, and gender development, as a vehicle for broad exploration of difficult issues that challenge even the most experienced Christian thinker. (14) Expressing some degree of openness in class can make it safer for students to approach the faculty member afterwards if they have had difficult experiences, for example, of rape or struggles with sexual orientation. In adolescent courses, the second author has shown statistics of teen pregnancy around the world, demonstrating that the U.S. leads other developing nations in their occurrence. These statistics are juxtaposed with statistics on higher rates of STD's (sexually transmitted diseases) among adolescents who make virginity pledges. This is not to devalue virginity or abstinence approaches, but to encourage greater statistical and conceptual sophistication (since some of these data are of poor quality and others are as good as any we have in developmental psychology). It further shows that the risks are very real for every adolescent, including those of faith, and that knowledge can help reduce those risks. All adolescents in our culture receive the same mixed messages about sexuality and may often lack meaningful and timely conversations with adults, sometimes because adults assume that the lives of adolescents are less stressful than they are. Classroom conversations can focus on the bio-psychosocial, cognitive, and spiritual factors that underlie these statistics and how individuals, churches, and communities can respond.

Sexuality involves many difficult topics that are relevant at various points during a class in developmental psychology, for example, when discussing behavior genetic techniques, gender differences, adolescence, and parenting. In our contemporary culture, with so many pressures on emerging adults to behave and think in certain ways, delivered by social media, newspapers, television, movies, and peer groups, it is important that Christian developmental psychologists be as ready as possible to help guide and challenge students in these areas. At the same time, one should never feel compelled to discuss these topics in a classroom setting. We appreciate the wisdom of one survey respondent who replied: "I don't avoid topics but I do table some topics as I try to keep discussion focused on development and nurturing youth."

Parenting. Our model is useful in parent training and both authors (and several respondents) use parent training as a recurring theme throughout classes. If a child is troublesome, it is helpful to remember that many different experiences can produce the same outcome. Parents are quick to predict the outcome of problematic behaviors, particularly negative outcomes. But interventions are often effective; a long-term contextual perspective is a powerful tool for parents to understand and explore; and challenging and "difficult" children often turn out fine. The developmental systems literature provides indicators of the long-term outcomes of various styles of parenting and can help parents to evaluate and modify their own behavior in order to bring about more positive outcomes.

The power of culture and context is also important to remember, and parents can be encouraged to explore ways to nurture positive development by changing their children's contexts. Continual assessment and readjustment of strategies is to be expected if one takes a longitudinal and bidirectional perspective and this should be built into all models of parent training and child intervention.

Parenting of emerging adults is of particular concern for several respondents and the authors. Emerging adulthood is a recently defined life stage that occupies the space between adolescence and adulthood, roughly covering the ages between 19 and 29 years (Arnett, 2000, 2004), and parenting this age span provides a useful final application of our model. Many emerging adults are still in school and are not married. They experience greater individuation from parents and make personal choices that influence their religious and other commitments, leading Arnett and Jensen (2002), in a paper they titled "A Congregation of One", to suggest that emerging adult religion is highly individualized. They further suggest that there is little relationship between childhood religious socialization and current religiousness. Other research suggests that, on the whole, emerging adult faith is surprisingly similar to their parent's faith (Lefkowitz, 2005; Leonard, Cook, Boyatzis, Kimball, & Flanagan, 2013). Yet, some emerging adults tend to abandon traditional church attendance and structures and others become spiritual exemplars (King, Clardy, & Ramos, 2014). Why? Professors might want to assign this question to their students, encouraging them to explore cultural, cognitive, attachment, and contextual issues. Some suggest that the primary challenge of emerging adulthood is identity development. A paper assignment might be: does this ring true in students' experiences? In early childhood, we talk about sensitive periods and an age of accountability. Is there a time in adolescence or emerging adulthood that is a " sensitive period " for lifelong faith commitment, i.e., when an individual is particularly primed for spiritual identity development? When do adolescents and emerging adults begin to " own " their faith, and are there distinctive ways to nurture this transition? What is the role of culture, context, personal history, biological make-up, cognitive development, or social competence in this transition? When one's spiritual development goes awry, and an emerging adult from a solidly Christian family " loses faith, " are there systemic, relational, or cognitive factors that can help this person develop greater maturity? Since attachment theorists argue that early parenting shapes long-term attachment relationships, including to God (Granqvist 8c Kirkpatrick, 2008), how would attachment theorists explain such a deviation from their predictions and how can this loss best be addressed?

Summary. We end this chapter where we began, by recognizing the need for a model of integration that emerges from developmental psychology and is applicable to general as well as faith development: we name our model the relationally integrated systems model. We propose that relationships are central to who we are as humans made in the image of God, and children come to know God in part from their relationships with others. With time, a child develops a relational or reciprocating self, one that has maturity and a mature faith if the surrounding relationships are positive and nurturing, and that shapes and is shaped by experiences throughout life. We propose a meta-model of development, really more a series of questions to ask about development than a specific model, that takes history, biology, and culture seriously, values the complex dynamic between individuals and their experiences, and recognizes the importance of an embodied faith.

Classroom implications from this model include listening to the stories that children and adults tell and paying attention to the contexts of their lives, exploring the development of the self both independently and in relationship, paying attention to the trajectories of development and to experiences which derail normal development, examining parenting practices which encourage the development of spirituality, and recognizing that development is complex and should not be oversimplified.

One final principle guides our application of this model into practice, the oft-stated but basic principle that "all truth is God's truth."

Without this principle integration cannot happen, because if science does not reveal God's handiwork then Christians would, out of necessity, hesitate to integrate science with faith. With others who have thought about integration (Stonehouse, 1998), we argue that God's revelation is both general (in nature) and specific (through Scripture). Nature is observed using scientific theory and methodology, and Scripture is understood through embodiment, prayer, and theology. If we knew enough, our multiple sources of revelation should complement one another. We should not therefore fear exploring any topics within developmental psychology (e. g., same-sex parenting, evolution), because the pursuit of knowledge leads us closer to God, not further away. God can be found in all things, including every developmental experience. Although this principle may seem self-evident, those who teach developmental psychology nevertheless experience some topics as lending themselves to integration more easily than others (e.g., attachment). We authors nevertheless propose that every topic within the field, including physical maturation and child play, has implications for development and can lend itself to conversations about integration. Thus, when students are asked the question: "What have we talked about in this class that is relevant for faith-learning integration? "--the answer should be, "everything."

Faith-learning integration is not a separate classroom unit that one teaches at some point during the semester (although this can be appropriate). Instead it is a life-long exploration of the complexity of development and the implications of what it means to be "made in the image of God." With a suitable model such as the relationally integrated systems model that is presented here and by the grace of God, we can help others--and we ourselves can--manifest that image in a developmentally mature and meaningful way.

References

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(1.) Developmentalists can also benefit from models from other disciplines that explore, for example, the relationship between Christ and culture (Niebuhr, 1951), soul care and traditional psychotherapy (Benner, 1998; Johnson, 2007; Moon & Benner, 2004), and neuroscience and religious experience (McNamara, 2009). Other useful models include chose from moral development (Clouse, 1993; Parker, 2006), reformed theology (Bussema, 1993; de Oliveira, 2004), and the wisdom and forgiveness literatures (DiBlasio, Worthington, & Jennings, 2013; Rhea, 2011).

(2.) For excellent work in this area, see Barrett (2012; Barrett & Burdett, 2011) and Nelson and Luciana (2008).

(3.) Theorists from the first perspective of relational spirituality have also recognized the importance of integrating cognitive processing into their model, primarily through exploring the implicit processing of emotional information (Hall & Porter, 2004; Hall et al., 2009).

(4.) Epigenesis is a concept that is here used to mean that influences are bidirectional, with the child influencing and being influenced by his or her context, in a way that unfolds over time.

(5.) We had planned to. name each person who gave us ideas, but this became too complicated and cumbersome.

(6.) James Fowler has developed a stage theory, outlined in Stonehouse (1998), that describes faith development by synthesizing Eriksonian (1968) and Piagerian approaches to development.

(7.) Further information about this assignment is available from the first author. Doing a special segment on spiritual formation is easier in an explicitly Christian context.

(8.) See Fowler, 1981, and the discussion of Fowler's stages in Stonchouse, 1998, ch. 7.

(9.) Cognitive developmental theories such as those by Piaget. Kohlberg, and Fowler are useful heuristically and for thinking about cognitive and faith development, but it is helpful to keep in mind that stage theories have been heavily criticized in the developmental literature because development is more complex than stages describe.

(10.) Kohlberg believed that Christians, who are called to obedience, cannot be at the highest stage because God gives Christians principles to live by, rather than Christians deriving their own principles. Despite his assumptions, Christian maturity requires personal ownership of faith, an experience that is suggested but not captured by his theory.

(11.) See, e.g.. Walker, 1989.

(12.) Frankl developed an existential meaning-centered approach to psychotherapy known as logotherapy. See http://purposerescarch.com/wp-contenr/uploads/2013/03/IFL-integration-of-logotherapy-2003-pp95-1011.pdf

(13.) Respondents take different positions on homosexuality issues--some very negative, others more "nuanced," to quote one respondent. Nature/nurture issues in general are complex, because of the difficulties of measuring behavior and the quality of behavior genetic research, and they are equally problematic with LGBT issues. Since there appear to be some biological bases to homosexuality, one cannot appropriately argue that homosexuality is always a choice. Scripture does give guidance in how to respond, however, and this might be a good time for this discussion. Most respondents seem to prefer not to address scripture at this time unless a student raises questions. Same-sex parenting is another issue in which the literature is not clear, and professors can decide whether and how to talk about scripture and/or the generally non-significant research findings in the literature and the poor research in this area. Both authors generally prefer to use these examples to illustrate problems in developmental research methodology and cultural influences on behavior, although if students introduce scriptural issues it is important to discuss them, dependent on the context.

(14.) See Schaffer (2000).

Kaye V. Cook Gordon College Kathleen C. Leonard University of Massachusetts Lowell

Author Information

COOK, KAYE V. PhD. Address: Department of Psychology, Gordon College. 255 Grapevine Road, Wenham MA 01984. Degree: Ph.D. (Developmental Psychology) University of North Carolina Chapel Hill. Specializations: cross-cultural values, religious development in emerging adulthood, parental attachment as an asset, correlates of moral identity.

LEONARD, KATHLEEN C. PhD. Address: Department of Psychology, University of Massachusetts Lowell, 113 Wilder St., Suite 300, Lowell MA 01854. Degrees: Ph. D. (Developmental Psychology) Boston College. Specializations: parenting influences in emerging adulthood, adolescents and emerging adult sexuality, the role of the church in positive youth development.