Strategies of self-presentation in the business meetings and negotiation/Prisistatymo strategijos dalykiniuose verslo pokalbiuose ir derybose.

Mazeikiene, Aiste ; Peleckis, Kestutis

1. Introduction. A theoretical review

The accentuation of the public self-aspect (characteristic of our society) is determined by the fact that every man under socialisation is urged to develop his own understanding as a social object. With this public self-aspect in mind the self-presentation is connected, i.e. such a behaviour by which a person strives to achieve in public surroundings to get people's agreement and to avoid pushing away and be oriented to the acceptable norms of behaviour and expectations of other people.

The motivation of self-presentation develops under public situations, because it is characteristic of a person to take an interest in people how they consider and evaluate other people (Leary, Kowalski 1990). Therefore, a person realising himself as a social object, tries to perceive and see himself as such who can be seen by others, and, representing himself correspondingly, tries to show himself to be accepted and evaluated, and/or in such a way that when regulating other people's impressions on himself, when getting particular results in business, he or she could confirm his (her) own identity.

Especially in a formal context the need for a demonstrative behaviour is expressed in a stronger form (Buss 1986).

In order to analyse more accurately the phenomenon of self-presentation during the business meetings, in the article the main strategies of self-presentation are described, business situation peculiarities and personal factors of different strategies of self-presentation are given, enlarging the influence both on person's identity and his state shaping.

Main terms

Self-presentation means a behavioural mode by which it is strived under public social surroundings to achieve an agreement and to avoid repudiating orienting to universally adapted behavioural norms and other people's expectations. Based on the definitions of other authors, the self-presentation may be defined as the process during which: 1) public information on himself/herself is presented (Baumeister et al. 1989); 2) an image for other people is developed (Baumeister et al. 1989; Buss 1986); 3) consolidating the person's identity is made (Leary, Kowalski 1990).

Self-presentation strategy--an active verbal and/or nonverbal means of behaviour in public social surroundings which aims to create a desirable image for surrounding people, to strengthen and sustain their own social status or other goals depending on self-presenting person's structure, on individual self-presentation skills and abilities as well as on other factors of the public situation.

Public situation means conditions when the human abilities and behaviour increase the presentation probabilities, when striving to impress positively on the surrounding people (Leary, Kowalski 1990).

The impression management--a process, when a person organises his/her behaviour in order to make one or another impression on surrounding people (Buss 1986).

The identity of a person means an image of the man himself; it is relatively stable and indivisible, but always renewing in the course of time. Guided by this image, people perceive and appreciate themselves, select goals, life style and cooperate with other people.

The public self-awareness--attention concentration to open to other people's observation his aspects and surrounding his Ego aspects and surrounding people's reactions, concerning their reactions to the words about the self-presenting person.

Self-monitoring means his-own behaviour monitoring and control when reacting to situation informative indications and evaluating his-own behaviour suitability for existing social norms and the society expectations (Rosenfeld et al. 2002).

Presentation understanding

Human behaviour changes depending on social situation presented allusions about the behaviour to be expected. Realising his own existence as a social object develops in a public evaluating situation--under evaluating public conditions, when estimating personal properties and behaviour (Baumeister et al. 1989). All daily business situations are related to self-presentation goals--from the meeting with a new boss during the selection interview, till the negotiation between competitors, presentation and selling of an idea, product, service, or during the meeting inside the company or in great conference, where we could be only a listener all three days, but we are making particular impressions anyway.

Together with self-monitoring the public self-awareness takes place: the individuum is seized by a diffusive feeling that he is in the centre of other people (Buss 1986). It is caused by two main indications of the social context: exclusiveness (i. e. when a person appears in a visible position, for instance, when speaks to the audience or to big group of business partners) and novelty (for instance, a person, when joining a new project group, is inclined to an intensive observation and investigation of the group members, when he goes for negotiation with a new client, etc.). When his own perception as a social object appears, the feelings of violation and non-safety increase, therefore the person during such moments is inclined to concentrate on his own appearance and to take care of it, looking for social hints of other people's impressions developed with his appearance (Leary, Kowalski 1990). In this way the social surroundings motivate the presented individuum to control other individuals' perception and evaluation.

The motive for an increase of his own power to other people just shows the presentations resulting in surrounding people attributions connected with the introducing person, behaviour and directing them to an approval (Rosenfeld et al. 2002). During the self-presentation the personal conflicts are defined and the roles of taking part of persons help ruling human reactions to themselves as a social object (Buss 1986).

2. Presentation process during the business meetings

2.1. Self-presentation goals

Modern self-presentation investigations do not parcel out the self-presentation into separate aspects--the motivation of image development and the structure of presentation itself. Several authors do not separate the motive to create an impression from a specific image (Leary, Kowalski 1990). In business situations the results are related to our image and impressions on other people.

Conditionally, it is possible to mark out self-presentation goals according to the fact that for achieving different goals the same self-presentation strategies may be applied. On the other hand, it is possible to achieve similar or the same goals by different strategies.

First, by a self-presentation it is possible to achieve some social and material results (Leary, Kowalski 1990). The transfer of a desirable image when associating with other people, increases the probability to obtain a desirable payment and to avoid undesirable results. Some results are of personal character (for instance, social approvement, help, friendship), others are material ones (for instance, evaluation of competence of a concrete person may affect his increase of salary or possibilities to raise qualifications; or, if we know the "right people", we can get the important information in time). Thus, to present oneself at a time may happen when striving to: a) professional success (carrier, higher positions); b) perception of a new role, when a person is not sure about the performance of this role; c) acquaintances with famous, competent people; d) a higher status, power over other people; e) to raise emotions for people around; f) social acknowledgment; g) to control personal relations (for example, get the sales contract more easy and with the best conditions); h) other goals.

Second, self-presentation may be used for strengthening personal self-esteem. Self-esteem is characteristic of people (Baumeister et al. 1989; Leary 1996). The surrounding people's reactions (compliments, praising or critics, repulsion) may strengthen or weaken self-esteem, therefore by a presentation most often it is tried to create such an image, which could strengthen the self-esteem of human reactions (Leary, Kowalski 1990).

Depending on the presentation goals, the following main presentation functions can be mentioned.

2.1.1. Development of impression on surrounding people

Presentation, during which the person creates an impression about himself for other people, performs an important role in personal relations. Because these developed impressions are important for estimating and perceiving people, an inclination exists to behave in a manner for developing a desired image in the eyes of other people. When describing the presentation, different authors use expressions "to worm himself into smb's favour" and "to wish creating benevolence": the presentation means a behaviour, when a person tries to influence the impression about himself by favouring another person--business partner (Buss 1986).

By different data, people when creating their own vision in business situations, are inclined to invent it or first of all to stress the main seven aspects of Ego: 1) social features (kind, warm, sincere, hearty); 2) social abilities (intelligent, polite); 3) mind and creativity (intellect and different abilities to art, research); 4) motivation (energetic, competent to perform tasks in time) (McMinn 2007); 5) morality (honest, conscientious, altruistic, loyal); 6) status (achieved, winned rank, social position, e. g. member of particular company, business club, family member or representative of a profession); 7) such personal qualities as modesty and reserve, which could help convince listeners to believe in positive traits of the self-presenter (Buss 1986).

Based on the accented higher traits of introduction, it is possible to mention another function of the introduction, i. e. it includes not only the person's effort to control his own image in the eyes of surrounding people (Baumeister et al. 1989), but also the behaviour, assigned to pass the same information about himself or some image of his own to others especially during the business meeting. The person introducing himself informs about his own identity and discloses values, emotional state, and theoretical propositions (Buss 1986). It allows to speak about representation as the presentation of information about himself in the most business situations (Rosenfeld et al. 2002; Hybels, Weaver 1989).

2.1.2. P resentation of information on himself

Based on his own experience in public and in the business situations, a person tries to guess the expectations of other people, enlarging the social Ego mind. The presented Ego is what a man tries to show to others (Adler, Towne 1987). Though it is strived by the presentation to show the best qualities, i. e. some aspects of Ego are consciously selected, the developed image reflects most often the representing Ego notion (Leary, Kowalski 1990).

Self-evaluation, regulations, values and other personal variables make the basis of motivation representation. On the other hand, the self-perception influences the choice of a strategy. Third, striving for non-desirable aspects of Ego predetermine the variety of impressions to be conveyed (Leary 1996). On the other hand, the representation itself may have some sequences for personal self-perception (Muraven et al. 2006). It gives a possibility to speak about the third function of representation--of development of personal identity, as some identity of his own image.

2.1.3. Strengthening the personal identity

Along with presentation functions described earlier, the information about himself presenting and his own image in the eyes of others developing, the presentation includes also a striving to develop an impression about himself for himself (Baumeister et al. 1989) and striving to retain some beliefs of my own person (Muraven et al. 2006). People create and influence other people's impressions about themselves in order to certify their identity for themselves (Baumeister et al. 1989). It may by called the presentation devoted to "an inner observer", as if a means to compensate--on the level of identity--a failure. In the opinion of other investigators, a benevolent Ego image may be formed because of inner reasons: persons, seeking to retain their identity, explain the reasons of failures by favourable (for themselves) conditions (Buss 1986). When the presentation is devoted to "the inner observer", it is reflected by every thought benevolent for himself; for formation and control of neighbouring opinions, a public presentation appears in the behaviour and acquires a verbal expression. An individual consolidation of his own identity is based actually on cognitive processes (Muraven et al. 2006). Thus, the processes of personal Ego image and a public impression development processes are different in motivation and performance sense.

In this work only strategies of presentation to other people in the business interaction are discussed. It does not minimize the importance of individual persons' motives when shaping an impression on surrounding people and does not deny the fact that a person tries also to develop an image for himself, basing on hints during the presentation of his own understanding and evaluation.

2.2. Self-presentation strategies

The strategy of self-presentation may be explained as an active behaviour under public social environment. By such a behaviour it is strived to create a desirable image for neighbouring people, to strengthen and retain his own social status and other goals depending on the inner structure of the presenting personality, individual skills and capabilities, also on outside (public business situation) factors.

Many strategies of self-presentation are sub-conscious and stable (Leary, Kowalski 1990). It so happens because of the influence of the choice on the self-presentation strategies. The characteristic of self-presentation, as an "up-toattention" process, presents a possibility to explain the disregard of some people to the impression of neighbouring people, but remain capable to adapt in one way or another to surrounding people's expectations. Therefore, the development of image does not influence the whole behaviour of a man, but it may by activated at a certain time, for instance, as a defensive mechanism to retain his social status (Muraven et al. 2006), as an important way to get the contract, to win in negotiation or to get better position in the market.

2.2.1. Classification of self-presentation strategies

Different authors in their compiled taxonomy of self-presentation characterise concrete strategies and personal motives as well as goals (Leary, Kowalski 1990). These authors underline the results of different self-presentation strategies and the risk in them to expect a negative evaluation of surrounding people. For instance, when by developed impression it is strived for sympathies and affection, there is a risk to hear such unfavourable characteristics, as "conformist", "toady", "weak" etc; when it is strived for a high status, honour and reliance, there is a risk to be considered a twaddler, a conceited person and a liar (Rosenfeld et al. 2002). Or, when striving to become an example for surrounding people, to be considered honest, devoted, suffering and selfless, it is possible to live to see contrary evaluations, i. e. other people may consider such a behaviour as conformism and toadyism. On the other hand, the persons wishing to be considered unlucky, helpless, and non-competent give rise in this way to compassion and a wish to take care of them, risk to be considered to be lazy, capricious, insincere and stigmatised.

People, changing their behaviour and trying to base themselves in business interaction, not always reach their goals and risk to await a negative reaction of surrounding people, totally contrary to that they believed to achieve (Vonk 1999).

In other investigations of such kind, different strategies of presentation are mentioned: "self-enhancing", "success provision", "failure avoiding", "self-humiliating", "suffering", "perfectionistic", "idealising", "intimidation", "good graces" strategies (Leary, Kowalski 1990; Fukushima 1994; Smith 1987). Besides, there is mentioned the strategic group of "image preservation" (Baumeister et al. 1989). Sometimes the names are given to the presentation strategy conventionally, stressing their motives and goals.

Describing two basic and essentially different presentation motives--self-defense and strengthening himself--investigators correspondingly single out two different presentation strategies: "defensive" and "consolidating" (Buss 1986). These two strategies as well as the tactics of ingratiation and self-humiliation by many investigations (Baumeister et al. 1989, Adler, Towne 1987) are recognized as most spread in negotiation and other business meetings, therefore they are discussed more widely.

2.2.2. Defensive self-presentation strategy

This strategy may be used for reaching different goals: a) to maintain the stability of self-esteem; b) to develop and justify the positive impression about himself; c) to get a social approval and acknowledgment; d) to control personal relations and dominate in them; e) to arise in the surroundings some emotions (fear, pity, sympathy); f) to deny their previous image, i.e. to avoid or change negative other people's attributions, which may be real or purposely perceived as negative ones (Buss 1986). It can be achieved by denying some facts, events, because of which the image can suffer, by interpreting them in such a way that they do not make harm, without taking responsibility for negative results; justifying their own behaviour by "honest goals" (Vonk 1999).

Hence, the main goal of defensive presentation is to avoid failure, to minimise risk to be unfavourably treated under indefinite situations and to avoid an obligation to retain positive Ego image, which, in case of a failure, i.e. when it is impossible to create the desired image or to get promised results from the business interaction, may determine public repulsion and humiliation of the self-presentative. Therefore, the defensive representative strategy is characterised also by avoiding taking responsibility for its earlier actions and for persons striving to remain unnoticed, especially under indefinite and risky situations. In some cases the defensive presentation includes the self-handicapping and even pro-social behaviour tendencies (Leary, Kowalski 1990). An individual, having doubts as to his own capabilities and stressing his initial failures, is inclined not only to show the properties causing failures, but also to make obstacles trying to avoid failures, though namely it increases the probability of failures (Baumeister et al. 1989).

For developing a defensive image there are characteristic short-term goals, arising most often under unbelievable and new business situations, in a limited time for considering own actions; but "the consolidating" strategy is to develop a steady identity of a person and to increase in the surrounding people long-term attributions (Vonk 1999).

2.2.3. Assertive (Consolidating) self-presentation strategy

This strategy may be characterised as resolute and risky tactics of behaviour in business and other public situations by stressing strong, desirable features accentuation or hyperboles and a strong belief in a success of creating a desired impression (Buss 1986).

The persons applying the consolidating self-presentation are inclined: a) to direct attention to themselves by distinguishing from other people; b) to affirm the desirable information about their strong features, ambitiously, even aggressively, idealising themselves, praising their own abilities, competence and power, demonstrating honesty, compassion, sincerity and other desirable properties helping to develop a maximal favourable impression about themselves (Vonk 1999); c) to base himself by an initial success and to explain the earlier events causes in a favourable manner, in case of a failure to ascribe it to outside factors and to explain the success as their own merit, i.e. to ascribe its causes to inner factors (Fukushima 1994); d) to strengthen his social status and power by recalling professional achievements and earlier achieved results as well as merits (Robinson et al. 1995); e) to strive for esteem and reliance of neighbouring people demonstrating similarities with listeners, the understanding of their problems and interests (Robinson et al. 1995); f) to be frank, not to hide their emotions and to acknowledge mistakes, because it stimulates the reliance of people (Buss 1986); f) to stress his/her own value orientations and positions, which undoubtedly correspond to prevailing in the society values (Robinson et al. 1995); g) to risk to be exposed (Baumeister et al. 1989).

Approving positive information about her/himself is a risky start of a presentation in a new business relationship. Because the goal of a self-strengthening presentation is to force the audience to evaluate the representative by an information about the presented person, his talents and achievements, the success is gained only when the audience believe in these statements (Buss 1986). On the other hand, when hoping to achieve a stronger effect, it is risky to stress his own difference or an advantage, because it may arouse in listeners--potential business partners--the sense of inferiority and to behave defensively (Suslavicius 1995). Thus, this tactics is risky, because self-characterisation by positive and distinct epithets does not guarantee a benevolent evaluation of surrounding people and the conclusion of a "good deal". First, the person takes the risk to appear proud, conceited. There exist norms of culture, which do not tolerate announcement of high evaluations of himself (Baumeister et al. 1989); they will be discussed further. Another risky moment is that the events after the consolidating self-representation may disclose the erroneousness of exaggerated evaluations of himself (Vonk 1999). Thus, the consolidating self-presentation strategy is risky in the sense of potential humiliation and social status loosing. However, in case of a success, namely this tactics of behaviour in public life gives the possibility for the most effective consolidating under social conditions.

2.2.4. Worming oneself into good graces strategy

It is a behaviour when it is attempted to arise positive reactions and benevolent estimation of people when seeking personal profit (Buss 1986). If this strategy is applied successfully, other people appreciate such a man not only because of his specific peculiarities, but also of his behaviour towards the appraiser. Such a "worming himself with the appraiser" is expressed by attention to other people, taking into account their opinion and interests, making compliments to them and agreements with the collocutor or auditorium opinion. An individual who uses the worming himself into somebody's favour, should be cautious because the estimator may see in his behaviour a manipulation (Buss 1986). For reaching his goals such a person uses a usual social pay--it may be attention, esteem, praising, sympathy, or sensitiveness to other person.

2.2.5. Self-humiliating self-presentation strategy

It is a kind of behaviour, when seeking to create a benevolent Ego image for the surrounding people or maintain in the view of society the image of a sufferer by depreciating his own values, in general, by presenting negative information about himself (Leary, Kowalski 1990). Consequently, it is strived by a self-humiliating self-presentation to develop his own image as unattractive, non-able to perform anything of an unreliable person, by arising other persons' fear, sympathy and pity. This strategy may appear totally irrational and useless. The main of his own humiliating motive is not retaining his own esteem, but seeking esteem, help and consolation (Leary, Kowalski 1990). Paradoxical is a peculiarity of this strategy that public negative information is apprehended clearer than the positive one (Vonk 1999), therefore self-humiliating people disclose themselves more than those who heighten themselves (Baumeister et al. 1989). Data of different investigations (Leary, Kowalski 1990) show, that by this self-presentation strategy the public Ego is not humiliated. Applying this strategy is as if to refuse to disclose some information about himself in order to avoid responsibility for his own actions, selecting non-obligating and reliable, non-risky behaviour kinds, for instance, evasion. When avoiding to express positive assertations about himself, at the same time it is avoided taking the risk connected with the described strengthening strategy risk, the attention of surrounding people is not directed to himself and expectations of other people in later stages of interaction are not stimulated (Vonk 1999). Therefore it is possible to assert that the strategy of self-criticism can even arouse a favourable reaction of people without obligating both sides (Baumeister et al. 1989).

3. Change of self-presentation strategies

By a self-presentation people seek definite goals, therefore after the self-presentation a change of strategies may follow, when the efficiency of earlier strategies connected with achieving these goals becomes less (Leary, Kowalski 1990). This subjective evaluation has some influence not only on the later behaviour of self-presenting person (for instance, for selecting another strategy for next negotiation), but also affects by the return principle the image development and the contents factors.

When a person believes to have achieved his desirable goals, he retains most often further active efforts to impress the surrounding persons, but he also tries to support the developed image by avoiding incompatible ways of behaviour. If a person does not consider to have produced a desirable impression, he may select three directions of further business interaction activities (Leary, Kowalski 1990).

First, if after an unsuccessful presentation the person believes to be able to produce a desirable impression by the same strategy of behaviour, he will be inclined to continue earlier efforts (Vonk 1999).

Second, when the self-presenting person believes that he will fail, he may direct his efforts to a contrary direction. For instance, if a person wants to impress people by his intellect and wit, he can do it by a rationalisation or cordiality and spontaneity. Or, for instance, he failed to appear as a competent man, therefore by a repeated visit he can seek to show his friendliness or client-orientation attitude (Leary, Kowalski 1990).

Third, when it seems to the self-presenting person that he will fail, when trying to create a benevolent image, he may apply a defensive strategy of presentation; it is directed to the image reservation by refusing further attempts to actively develop the desirable image (Baumeister et al. 1989). In this case it is possible to mention "the image preservation" strategies, seeking to rebuild the earlier positive image. It may appear as apology, as justification and explanations, as ascription of benevolent attributions, as services and graces, as accusation and slander (Vonk 1999), dissociation from his own social or professional role and development of compensating impression (Leary, Kowalski 1990). In this case the self-presentative is inclined to have doubts in his success, to experience a social anxiety and to behave indecisively (Baumeister et al. 1989). Such reserve reflects the strategy of defence, diminishing the possibilities to await later unfavourable appreciations (Leary, Kowalski 1990).

4. Discussion and conclusions

After a review of self-presentation strategies variety, a question arises: what factors predetermine the choice of strategy during the business meetings and the realization of goals by the help of this strategy. The presentation strategy is the result of some factors interaction--of inner psychic structures, individual presentation skills and the whole of capabilities and factors of outside social and economic environment (Baumeister et al. 1989). Under some social situations the difficulties may develop connected with performing the selected or attributed role, when keeping to the selected presentation strategy. There exist clear differences of self-presentation, when adapting to situation requirements.

The public evaluation situation determines the concentration on its own publicly seen sides and concerns the impression produced on surrounding people. In this way the environment motivates an individuum during self-presentation to control apprehension and evaluation of people. During self-presentation the public information about himself is presented, his own image for surrounding people created and the individual identity solidified.

The start of developing a man's image means a resolution what concrete image is to be produced. Here it is important not only the fact, that a person is motivated to create an impression on other people, but also what impression he wishes to produce reaching his own goals. The second step is the choice of strategies, which could help reaching these goals. In this work the mentioned strategies are most often applied not separately, but combined into definite combinations. The third step is the performance of self-presentation and its evaluation, depending on many inner or outer factors, among them an important role is performed by not only the properties of self-presenting people, associating skills and style, but also the situation of self-presentation.

The strategies of self-presentation reflect a great variety of possible impressions in publicity by an active human behaviour. Their goals depend on the inner structure of the self-presenting person, individual skills and capabilities to present himself and on outer, situational factors. By a selfpresentation it can be tried to achieve social and material results; a self-presentation may also be used for strengthening the person's self-esteem and his identity.

The main strategies of self-presentation are those of selfstrengthening, defence, worming themselves into somebody's favour and humiliating themselves and are known by a potential profit and risk to await opposed evaluations of contrary expectations. Following after a self-presentation the public behaviour evaluation influences the later behaviour of self-presentation, the choice of a new self-presentation by feedback influences the impression creating motivation, the contents determining inner factors. Personal (individual, inner) factors, interpersonal and situational (outside) factors, determining the strategies selection, are closely interrelated not only during a self-presentation, but also when selecting goals and means to reach these goals.

5. Further research

In earlier self-presentation investigations the insufficient attention was paid to perceptional and cognitive processes, when the participants selected the self-presenting strategies. Many investigators present data about the attempts to create "the best" images and following them a clear feedback from the auditorium going round these stages, when a person begins to take interest in his own public image basing his own public image on other persons to consider how his behaviour could correspond to the surrounding people. It remains a non-answered question, in what way these initial stages of development and management take place in planning the representation process itself during which the pre-conditions for creating a desirable image are researched for presenting himself and ensure support and approval of its audience.

After a discussion of self-presentation motivation and strategies selection factors, a question also arises, which of these factors are more important for self-presenting person's behaviour, when developing a favourable image, and which of these factors help or disturb to represent himself successfully--the individual properties of the self-presenting person or public social environment with existing in it values and standards. In further investigations of self-presentation studies it would be interesting to analyse, how the behaviour is changed in publicity, depending on hints, on a social situation, about what behaviour is to be awaited, when the outside factors influence is stressed considering a precondition that these exist in great individual differences, when adapting to situational requirements. Based on the discussed inner and outer self-presentation conditioning interrelated factors, it can be stated that not so much the person himself with his own properties and values, than social pressure under public situation conditions the orientation of the self-presentant to some accepted social norms; thus, public images (of political leaders, prominent artists etc.) are created in advance and later only "selected" personalities correspond to desirable images.

All the earlier discussed theoretical self-presentation models are based on investigations performed in Western countries. The investigations in Lithuania could present a possibility to analyse an additional aspect of self-presentation: how in the society, living and experiencing a transitional period from one social, economic and political system to another one, with a characteristic tension between old and newly developing values, the discussed theories corroborate, i.e. which reactions and changes they can develop in this context.

Thus, when introducing himself, the person manipulates his social environment or, on the contrary, this environment (cultural and social norms, other people's regulations, expectations etc.) presents the direction of the efforts for the self-presenting person, when enforcing himself in the society. The question should be answered by further selfpresentation investigations.

Received 22 December 2008; accepted 10 August 2009

Iteikta 2008-12-22; priimta 2009-08-10

References

Adler R.; Towne, N. 1987. Looking Out, Looking In: Interpersonal Communication. New York: Holt. Rinehart a. Winston.

Baumeister, R. F.; Tice, D. M.; Hutton, D. G. 1989. Self-Presentational Motivations and Personality Differences in Self-Esteem, Journal of Personality 53 (3): 547-579.

Buss, A. H. 1986. Social Behavior and Personality. Hillsday, New Jersey: Erlbaum.

Fukushima, O. 1994. Effects of an Instructed Norm and an Anticipation of Audience on Self-Presentation, Tohoku Psychologica Folia 53: 76-80.

Hybels, S.; Weaver, R. L. 1989. Communicating Effectively. New York: Random.

Leary, M. R.; Kowalski, R. M. 1990. Impression Management: A Literature Review and Two Component Model, Psychological Bulletin 107 (1): 34-47. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.107.1.34.

Leary, M. R. 1996. Self-Presentation: Impression Management and Interpersonal Behavior. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press.

McMinn, J. G. 2007. Review of DiFonzo & Bordia: Rumour psychology, Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy 7: 255-257.

Muraven, M.; Shmueli, D.; Burkley, E. 2006. Conserving selfcontrol strength, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 91 (3): 524-537. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.91.3.524.

Robinson, M. D.; Johnson, J.T., Shields, S.A. 1995. On the Advantages of Modesty: The Benefits of a Balanced Self-Presentation, Communication Research 22: 575-591. doi:10.1177/009365095022005003.

Rosenfeld, P.; Giacalone, R. A.; Riordan, C. A. 2002. Impression Management: Building and Enhancing Reputations at Work. London: Thomson Learning.

Smith, H. W. 1987. Introduction to Social Psychology. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice--Hall. 205 p.

Suslavicius, A. 1995. Socialine psichologija. Kaunas: Sviesa.

Vonk, R. 1999. Impression Formation and Impression Management: Motives, Traits, and Likeability Inferred from Self-Promoting and Self-Deprecating Behavior, Social Cognition 17 (4): 390-412.

doi: 10.3846/1648-0627.2009.10.322-329

Aiste MAZEIKIENE. Master of Organisational Psychology. Lecturer at Mykolas Romeris University, Department of Psychology, and lecturer at Vilniaus Academy of Business Law. Research interests: human resourse management, psychology of effective management, and practical development of rethoric' and self-presentation' competencies.

Kestutis PELECKIS. Associate Professor, Doctor of Social Sciences (Economics), Dept of Enterprise Economics and Management, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University. The author of more than 80 publications. Research interests: increase of efficiency of business decisions and negotiations.

Aiste Mazeikiene (1), Kestutis Peleckis (2)

(1) Mykolas Romeris University, Ateities g. 20, LT-08303 Vilnius, Lithuania (2) Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, Sauletekio al. 11, LT-10223 Vilnius, Lithuania E-mails: [email protected]; [email protected]

Aiste Mazeikiene (1), Kestutis Peleckis (2)

(1) Mykolo Romerio universitetas, Ateities g. 20, LT-08303 Vilnius, Lietuva (2) Vilniaus Gedimino technikos universitetas, Sauletekio al. 11, LT-10223 Vilnius, Lietuva El. pastas: (1) [email protected]; (2) [email protected]