Why so few minority professors in higher education?

Schwarz, Jason ; Hill, Kathy L.

INTRODUCTION

In the United States minorities have long been underrepresented in many different areas. Since its infancy social inequities have been a part of this country with the majority building a structure that ensures things will always remain the same. The teaching field, specifically college professors, is one of those areas that have not seen much change over time. In 1980 Blacks made up 4.3% of full-time faculty in American universities, and by 2003, that figure had only risen to 5.5% (Cooper, 2009). In more than two decades (23 years) the numbers had only gone up by 1.2%. If change is to occur, this number has to be considered unacceptable and something must be done to rectify the situation.

This paper will investigate some of the reasons behind the lack of minority professors in higher education. It will discuss a few of the obstacles that minorities face not only as students, but also as professors. Then, it will analyze the education of our public school teachers, and end with some of the measures taken at private institutions to assist minority students in overcoming some of the obstacles they face. For a positive adjustment to take place, the first step would be to get to the root of the problem.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Not a lot of literature is devoted strictly to the minority professor, but a lot of research is devoted to studying the problems minorities face as students, the hardships experienced by professors of color, the education of our public school teachers because of the big impact they have on students and the actions taken by colleges and universities.

The studies will be discussed as each topic is addressed.

MINORITIES AS STUDENTS

Most minority students do not grow up thinking of becoming teachers, or even going to college. They may not always have parents that are able to be completely involved in their education, so they turn to their peers. This could be good or bad depending on who they choose to associate with. Teachers can also have a lot of influence on the educational choices of economically disadvantaged minority students. Whoever is influencing these kids needs to make sure they are influencing them in the right direction.

PARENT INVOLVEMENT

Adolescents' decisions can often be influenced by many different people or things. Parents can be a huge factor in determining if their kids will end up enrolling in college or not. Children from low-income families, which many minorities are, often have less parental involvement in their education than their wealthier counterparts. The low-income parents may not know anything about higher education. In fact, to many of them the high school diploma is still considered the sign of upward mobility. While a diploma is something to be proud of, the importance of a college degree in today's world cannot be ignored.

The minority students' parental involvement is at a disadvantage. Michael J. Smith (2009) argues that parental involvement in college choice can be a huge factor for underprivileged students. The study explains how access to selective colleges and universities has become a very competitive game where parents try to make sure their children attend the most prestigious schools possible. This can often work against students from low-income families because their parents lack the economic and social resources to help them compete (Smith, 2009). Many factors such as: inflexible work schedules, inconveniences in public transit, and resource inequities might work against low-income parents. Because these parents often work odd hours, they have less time to attend meetings at school. If they do not have at least one car, they will also have a difficult time attending meetings and activities at their kids' schools. Being limited to public transit is definitely inconvenient. Finally, resource inequities exist, also. These families may not have internet access making it nearly impossible to do any college research at home.

These barriers help to keep the low-income parent less involved, but that does not mean he/she does not support his/her child's education. They probably do not know much about college, and they have little to no knowledge of the many different higher education options. Attending a university is something that is expected in many middle and upper-middle class households, but is often looked at as an unrealistic option in low-income households. These families might perceive the cost as being too high, and they could be unaware of the different types of financial assistance that are out there. Once again in these households the focus is sometimes put on the high school diploma (Smith, 2009).

PEER INFLUENCE AND SCHOOL NETWORKS

The strong influences of peer pressure have been have been well documented over recent years. The negative side of peer influence is usually what is focused on, but there can be positive impacts as well. When kids are deciding whether or not to enroll in college their peers can be huge factors in their decisions. Sokatch's (2006) research on roles that peers play in the decision to go to college began establishing the importance of a college degree for economic reasons as well as social mobility. The 2004 U.S. Census Bureau reported that men with a bachelor's degree had a median income 64% higher than men who only completed high school. The difference between the women was even greater with a median income 70% higher (Sokatch, 2006). His research found that friends' plans were significant predictors of college enrollment for low-income, minority high school graduates. In fact, they were the best predictor by far of all the variables Sokatch used (Sokatch, 2006). If students see their friends trying to better themselves, then they will be more motivated to do the same. If their peers know about colleges and what it takes to get into them, then they will naturally be more aware as well. Some have argued that this may be explained by college-bound students choosing similar academically oriented classmates as friends. This might be the case in some instances, but surely it should not be generalized across the board.

While children are most definitely impacted by those closest to them, (parents and peers) schools can also take an active part in guiding and directing student choices. Many studies have shown the importance of school-based social capital for college-planning tasks and activities of students of color. As mentioned before, these children may not get as much guidance from their parents or peers, so the networks at schools might be even more important for them. College and/or guidance counselors can be a tremendous influence on kids from this group that end up going to college.

Experiential learning could include taking students on tours of college campuses. If they get to experience that atmosphere it is more likely that they will begin to consider it a very real option for their own futures, especially if they see college students they can identify with. Farmer-Hinton's research (2008) showed that many black students really opened up to the idea of college after visiting Historically Black Colleges and Universities. Students in the study felt that touring these facilities raised their consciousness and widened their perspectives. This helped the idea of going to college seem less vague and raised their confidence about the viability of college access. This type of enrichment activity gives the kids a chance to see just what college is all about.

High expectations are also very useful when guiding the college choices of students of color. Many of these kids have had people expect little to nothing out of them in the past. When you expect more out of people, they will usually end up expecting more out of themselves as well. When more is expected the pupils translate that into the teacher or counselor believing in them. Having others believe in them will often help them find the power to actually believe in themselves. Staying on these students with the idea that they have the opportunity and they should go to college can be a major influence on their ultimate decisions. Wanting more out of each individual student might eventually help them realize that they really do want more out of their own life.

Finally, if they have the time and resources to search for colleges and fill out applications, they will have a much better chance of attending postsecondary school. Students in Farmer-Hinton's study (2008) were provided class time and space to do research on colleges. They were also required to submit applications to those colleges and use class time to draft those applications and personal statements (Farmer-Hinton, 2008). Giving students the opportunity to take care of these tasks at the school can be a big help to them. Students without access to these resources will have a harder time completing the college-planning process, which can be confusing and very time consuming.

TEACHER INFLUENCE

Teachers can also have a large impact on student's decisions on whether or not to attend college. Sometimes this is especially true for economically disadvantaged children. These kids deal with a lot more difficult situations than children of higher income families. Living in poverty can be very stressful and has the tendency to hamper educational development and achievement. These disadvantaged students, many of which are minorities, are often excluded from enrichment programs and extracurricular activities because of cost and limited mobility (Foster, 2008). They need teacher support more than others if they are to succeed in their educational aspirations.

The research shows that when students perceive teachers as caring it is associated with several positive results including higher attendance, more time spent studying, increased academic achievement, and a much lower drop-out rate (Foster, 2008). Lately, learner-centered teaching approaches have been getting a lot of publicity for their effectiveness in helping economically disadvantaged students. Different from the traditional method, the learner-centered method is based on a model of back and forth learning. With the old approach the teacher teaches and hopefully the student learns. The flaw with this is that some children learn differently than others, and individuality is not embraced with this method. With the learner-centered approach students are seen as active, knowledgeable, and individualized with an optimum speed and learning style (Foster, 2008).

Foster's study (2008) looked at a high school where teachers were using this new method in the classroom. This particular school started a higher education initiative that they called early college high school. This program was meant to encourage economically disadvantaged students to attend college. It featured an overlap in high school and college credit, and students could even earn an associate's degree by the time they graduated from high school. Proponents believed that the shorter time frames and lowered expenses would get more disadvantaged kids interested in continuing their educations beyond high school.

The structure of the early college high school courses featured smaller class sizes, individualized learning, high academic expectations, and much more experiential material, all of which are components of the learner-centered approach (Foster, 2008). Before the year began each student created a personalized learning plan with his or her advisor and parents. This plan was geared toward student interests, knowledge, and learning style, and was intended to keep the students actively involved in the learning process (Foster, 2008). This style of teaching seemed to create even higher expectations as pupils had to assume ownership and take control of their own learning.

Foster's study (2008) then looked at how the students felt about their teachers in the early college high school as compared to teacher they had before this experience. Most past experiences left students wanting more out of their instructors. Two common themes existed in many of the pupils' evaluations, teaching for the paycheck and the worksheet mentality. Instructors seen as teaching for the paycheck were characterized as not wanting to be there and giving very little effort.

These teachers were not actively involved in the learning process, and they looked at school as more of a daycare. The worksheet mentality was more focused on the completion of short assignment instead of sequenced learning. Students either did their work or not, and a grade signaled the end of learning.

After a year in the early college high school program students praised their new teachers. They truly believed the instructors cared about them and were committed to their learning processes. The teachers were seen as very encouraging and supportive toward the children. Many kids came out and said that their former teachers were nowhere near as passionate as the ones at the early college high school (Foster, 2008). Instructors from the new school even made visits to the homes of students to make the planning process easier. This also established that they would both be learning from each other and were in the situation together. It showed students that they would be working together with teachers, instead of working for them or against them. Nearly every student in this program went on to attend college. This particular study showed how valuable teachers can be in influencing student decisions about college, as well as how effective a non traditional approach can be.

TEACHER EDUCATION AND PREPARATION

For minorities to accomplish more in this world they must have a good education. How they are taught during their early years could set them up for the rest of their lives. If they are encouraged and held to a higher standard by teachers that try and relate to them then they have a higher probability of achieving academic success. For this reason it is very important that teachers come equipped with effective ways to get through to economically disadvantaged children. How and what our teachers are taught during their own schooling is more important than ever if they are to do a good job with underprivileged youth.

Too often these education programs are not practical enough to be applied in the classroom. They sound good and nice during lecture, but they may have never been tested out in the real world. The achievement gap between white students and minority students has shown us that there is not one way to do things. Diverse students and mainstream students might not process or learn information in the same manner. This falls back on the colleges and professors of education. They must do a better job preparing future teachers for the classroom and its diverse issues.

It has been shown that teachers can have a huge impact on the achievement of minority students. They can also influence their ideas about themselves and their attitudes, which makes these types of pupils more dependent on the teacher than their white counterparts are. These teachers must get the proper instruction so they can meet the needs of these diverse students. Inexperienced teachers are often put in positions where they are teaching in urban areas, and too often they feel overwhelmed and unprepared. The classroom gets away from them before they know it, and they end up spending most of their time dealing with behavior issues. These students are more than likely acting out because the teacher is not meeting their instructional needs. It is no coincidence that these instructors often found their own education programs to be poor or mediocre at best (Talbert-Johnson, 2006). They also believed many of their professors seemed disinterested in the public school system and were detached from the realities of an urban school setting.

Talbert-Johnson (2006) contends that teacher education programs should provide more clinical experiences throughout the process. She also feels that emphasizing these experiences early on will give the future instructors a conceptual structure for them to organize and better understand the dynamics of the classroom (Talbert-Johnson). Colleges may even look at placing future teachers in nonschool programs that get them more acquainted with the type of diverse students and cultural differences they will face. Too often the instructors in an urban school setting are under-qualified and unprepared for the job, but this reflects back on their own education and training. Universities must create programs that are effective in both giving teachers the knowledge and the dispositions that will translate into them running successful classrooms, especially where the diverse student is concerned.

H. Richard Milner IV studied his own teacher education course where he attempted to introduce the relevance of race and racism in society and thus education. Through personal narrative and self-study Milner found that it was very important for him to include personal experiences into his instructor material (Milner, 2007). He believed that this allowed the students to see him as not just a professor, but as a normal that they could empathize with. They were able to see that he experienced life, the good along with the bad just as they themselves did. Milner was able to get students to rethink some of their points of view and see things from a different perspective. Many of his pupils began in his class believing that racism did not exist much anymore, but after some time listening to his personal stories and discussing them they were able to look back and identify past incidents that might very well have been racist acts (Milner, 2007). Milner showed future educators that racism was still in the classroom, and he also showed them how to stop it.

Self-study is the teacher educator's examination of their own practice in an effort to improve their own work (Milner, 2007). This is a very important reflective process that can help instructors see what they are doing right and what they are doing wrong. Personal narratives are a great teaching tool, but they can only be considered effective if they improve teachers' practices with students.

Milner argued that teacher educators should implore more self-study by checking up on their students in their own classrooms. Professors could decide if the teachers are doing a better job with the students, especially the minorities. Self-study will help professors see if the students are improving in their curricular and instructional decisions (Milner, 2007). Without self-study teacher educators will have a difficult time learning from their work and improving upon it.

MINORITIES AS PROFESSORS

Aspiring minority professors may find impediments to their success throughout their educational experiences. The few that make it to the end have probably gone through some tough and trying times to get there. This can be a good thing because it builds character, shapes who they become, and gives them life lessons to use in the classroom. However, this will likely not be the final test, as they will encounter more problems after they are hired to teach at a college or university. A couple of areas of concern for minority college educators are student resistance and a difficult or biased administration. Networking with other faculty and creating support groups can be excellent tools to help them deal with these situations.

STUDENT RESISTANCE

After overcoming the many obstacles just to get into the position, minority professors find a whole new set of road blocks once they are actually in the classroom. Individuals hired to teach diversity-centered courses may have it the worst. Mainstream or majority students may be extremely resistant to minority professors that are teaching on diverse issues. Student resistance will be defined as students challenging an instructor's credibility and authority by inappropriately opposing the instructor's presence in the classroom (Perry et al., 2009). Most teachers will experience student resistance at some point, but for minority faculty, it can be experienced on a much larger scale, even daily. This is especially true for minority professors teaching diversity-centered courses. Student resistance can leave the educator with a "me against them" feeling, which makes the classroom a volatile place with a very negative atmosphere. One instructor even described her classroom as a battlefield: "I'm going into this place where it's going to be me against them. It feels awful. It feels like you are before the class and you basically put on your fighting gear. You feel like you are putting your armor on and it's only you" (Perry et. al, 2009). This type of environment is not conducive to learning.

Student behavior of this sort might be explained by the fact that many of these mainstream students have not encountered minorities, particularly blacks, in positions of authority. Also, racism and sexism are very delicate topics for many people, and they would rather not discuss them than have entire lessons on them. These topics can make many individuals, especially white students, very uncomfortable. Often when people get uncomfortable, they become very defensive. Programs that are implemented to cover Aboriginal, Black, and Asian issues are often met with a range of reactions from polite indifference, aloofness, disdain, and arrogance to open hostility from mainstream students (Samuel & Wane, 2005). This poses a major problem for minority educators hired to teach these perspectives not only in their pedagogy, but also in their careers.

In a study conducted by Samuel and Wane in 2005, diverse professors stated that white students were inattentive, rude, and indifferent to any lectures on racism (Samuel & Wane, 2005). These teachers perceived blatant resistance and hostility from the majority students, and when topics of race were discussed in class, they often felt disrespected by these students. Those who took part in the research felt that many of the students refused to learn about or discuss issues dealing with racism or sexism. Why is this so? White students may have been taking these issues personally.

They may have felt somewhat guilty for the oppressions and injustices suffered by minorities throughout time even if they had nothing to do with them. Mainstream students often come from conservative households, and they may find minority professors much too extreme in their approaches. Then there is the supremacy factor. People that are raised to think they are better than other groups will exhibit that belief and behavior in the classroom. White students may feel that the minority professor is too extreme in his/her approach, or they might think the curriculum is biased and this information is being forced on them.

Another challenge that minority educators face is the questioning of their integrity. This happens when the students believe the instructor is biased and has his/her own personal motives and agendas. Part of the class may even call into question the credibility of the subject matter being taught. In Perry, Moore, Edwards, Acosta, and Frey's study (2009), minority professors had students ask them if they were racist and where they got their information. Students openly questioned these professors about their lecture material and about the trustworthiness of the material. These were blatant attacks on the credibility of faculty of color inside the classroom.

To the participants in the study it seemed that the class members that acted in these ways were unable to look at the teacher as an outside party. This all goes back to these mainstream students thinking the teachers had their own personal motives and agendas. They may have felt that the instructor could not give an unbiased view on racial issues because of his/her own experiences.

Part of the problem may also have been that the students were required to take a diversity-centered course. Many of them did not want to be in the class in the first place and were disinterested from the outset. This could have caused resentment. If the content is taught from a perspective far different from theirs, many students will wonder why they have to take this particular class. The resentment builds and builds and those students end up devaluing the minority professor along with all he/she has to say.

What makes it even more difficult for minority educators is that they perceive students as having the upper hand. Many diverse teachers actually see the students as having more power than they do. This might cause them to become less aggressive in their teachings for fear of losing their jobs. Students can complain to higher ups about the professor, the grading, or even the course content (Samuel & Wane, 2005). When students do this, they create a poor learning environment as well as an atmosphere that is very negative for the minority faculty member. Students can also get out of the course if they do not agree with the lectures and discussions. If this continually happens in large enough numbers, it will reflect poorly on the professor. This could lead the administration and even colleagues to jump to the conclusion that the teacher is too aggressive or even racist.

Students also carry a lot of power through their evaluations of the professor. Most schools give out teacher evaluations near the end of each semester. Those evaluations are an important factor in regard to tenure, renewal of contracts, and promotions. If students disagree with or show hostility toward the faculty member and his or her teaching methods, they will, more than likely, give that individual a poor evaluation. Because of this, minority educators sometimes feel that they are evaluated unfairly. Even poor-performing students or failing students get to share their opinions in these evaluations. This could obviously create a bias for many of the evaluation results. This doesn't seem fair that these students could comment on the ability of the instructor when they are not knowledgeable on the subject matter.

Being able to reach mainstream students and managing the classroom at the same time can be a difficult task to master. The teachers have to be aware of their environment. These minority professors must realize that they might be walking into a very hostile situation, and they should be fully prepared. Much of what they say could be challenged by unyielding students, making it imperative that they know what they are teaching and have the facts and statistics to back it up. Instructors have to anticipate challenges they could potentially face and be ready to deal with them. Teachers of diversity-centered education classes have to realize that they are asking students to challenge their own beliefs which may bring out some hostility and extreme reactions.

Minority professors may also want to try and establish a high level of credibility in the students' eyes from the beginning. Before starting to lecture, they may want to tell the class about their academic accomplishments. If they have contributed to research in the field, journal articles, or even books on the subject matter, they should disclose that information at the beginning (Perry et. al, 2009). This will make it less likely that students will devalue the instructor or the course content. Obviously this tactic will work much better for professors with more experience. A first-year teacher will have difficulty using this approach to his/her advantage.

DIFFICULTIES WITH ADMINISTRATION

Collegiate faculties depend on their administration and support staff. If biases exist within either or both of these groups, minority educators could be at risk. White administrative staff can delay work, do a poor job on work for the faculty members, or even "lose" files or documents in an effort to disrupt the work and credibility of these teachers.

In Samuel and Wane's study (2005), the minority faculty interviewed experienced a lack of administrative support from secretaries, colleagues, department chairs, and deans as compared to their white counterparts. The participants in this research believed that people of color were given place but not importance. Minority faculty or administrators were put in visible positions for public image reasons, but in many instances, their power did not match the position held. Minority educators at this particular institution also felt that research on nonmainstream topics was discouraged and not supported. One professor reported that it was extremely difficult to get funding for diversity projects. Without grants or some other form of funding, faculty is unable to do research. This poses a major dilemma to these teachers as many institutions require their faculty to do research and get published. Their jobs often depend on the quantity and quality of their research.

SUPPORTING EACH OTHER

While instructors in higher education settings are usually strong and very intelligent, they are still human. If things are not going well and they have no one to talk or listen to, these individuals can be very fragile. Professors need encouragement and support just as their students do.

Sharon Fries-Britt and Bridget Turner Kelly are African American professors who attended a predominantly White institution. They used each other for support and both achieved a great deal of success. Sharon and Bridget's relationship began as advisor and advisee. Bridget Turner Kelly was a first year doctoral student who happened to register for a class taught by Sharon Fries-Britt. Soon after this semester Sharon became Bridget's advisor, and they established a good working relationship as well as a great personal relationship. Together they went on to publish numerous studies in many top-tier journals. The two also biannually attended conferences and led roundtable discussions on ways that black women could advance in their field (Fries-Britt & Turner Kelly, 2005) .

These two worked so well together because they established trust very early, and they were able to escape their formal roles of teacher and student. Their identities as African American women helped to enhance the bond they shared as well as their productivity. Obviously Sharon and Bridget believe that universities should support networking, whether it is formal or informal, of minority faculty (Fries-Britt & Turner Kelly, 2005).

Fries-Britt and Turner Kelly (2005) showed people, through their own personal narratives, just how invaluable a support system can be. These two women leaned on each other during the hard times and celebrated together during the good times. They developed an unbreakable bond because of the similarities in their beliefs and backgrounds and are still close friends today.

Social networking at the workplace can be a very valuable tool for a minority educator. It is always easier to persevere through difficult times with someone giving support. Hardships are also made easier if one knows that others have been there before and gotten through it. Mentoring programs should be implemented at universities that lack them. Fries-Britt & Turner Kelly (2005) also feel very strongly about mentoring programs and think that institutions should recognize these contributions made by mentoring faculty. Professors of color would be wise to take advantage of these programs if they exist at their institution.

BRANCH CAMPUSES

College and universities are starting to set up branch campuses to make it easier for minority students to attend and obtain their college degree. Briscoe and Oliver (2006) studied the University of Texas at San Antonio, examining the main and branch campuses and their locations in terms of economic, ethnic, and situational geography. San Antonio was an excellent choice for this research because it is located right on an ethnic boundary between White and Hispanic Americans. Counties to the south of Bexar County (the county where San Antonio is located) are predominantly Hispanic, while counties to the north are predominantly White. Another reason to use this city is that it is a very large market with an economy that is dependent on marketing to Hispanics (Briscoe & Oliver 2006). San Antonio is the largest urban area in the country to be dominated by an ethnic minority.

The main campus of UTSA was built with the objective of putting the Mexican American into the mainstream of society, but it failed miserably (Briscoe & Oliver, 2006). A central location would have been best for accessibility to all groups, but private land interests got in the way, and the campus was constructed on the northwest end of the city. This area was and still is dominated by upper-middle class Whites, while the south and central areas of San Antonio was and still is where the majority of underprivileged minorities live. This made it more difficult on the group that would already have the hardest time making college fit into their world. The objective seemed bogus as the city was not serving the groups they set out to. The commute for someone living in the heart of San Antonio would take a lot of time and money. These were just more road blocks for the people who already had enough obstacles to overcome. Many also argued that wealthier whites could easily manage a commute to the inner city, and that many of them would going off to the University of Texas at Austin or Texas A&M University anyway (Briscoe & Oliver, 2006).

The branch campus was built in downtown San Antonio to satisfy the original objectives of the main campus. The location, which adequately served the underprivileged population of the city, was an excellent choice. However, the disparities in educational offerings between the two campuses have led many to conclude that the branch campus is a failure. The classes and programs at the second site are not nearly as good as offerings at the main site. At the time of this study there were 52 different degrees offered at UTSA, but only three of them could be attained by students without having to go to the main campus. Sixty one percent of the students at the downtown site had to make the northbound commute to the main campus on a daily basis (Briscoe & Oliver, 2006). This is a major problem with many branch campuses around the country. With the extension only offering three degrees one could argue that it pushes underprivileged students in the wrong direction. This study shows that extension campuses just do not offer the same opportunities as the main campuses.

CONCLUSION

The number of minority professors in education is a social problem that needs to be addressed. Potential minority candidates struggle with many things from the start of their academic careers. These students may not get much academic involvement out of their parents or peers, so it is often critical that teachers step in and guide them. For this to happen, our colleges must do a better job of preparing future educators. For those non mainstream individuals that are in this profession, student resistance and difficulty with the administration can be impediments, making it very important to have a solid support system. Some colleges are trying to increase accessibility by offering branch facilities, but branch facilities haven't accomplished their intended goal which was to make it easier for minority students to attend a college or university to obtain their college degree.

Institutions of higher education are supposed to symbolize intellect and open mindedness, but the demographic makeup of our colleges' faculties does not support these themes and ideals. There are many reasons why the number of minority professors is not growing substantially, some of which are evident in the beginning of the academic process. To move forward the social structure in our country has to be altered. There are still far too many racial inequities present in our society. Obviously it will be challenging to turn this situation around and it will not happen over night, but we must come together to find a solution.

REFERENCES

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Cooper, K. J. (2009). A disturbing trend. Diverse Issues in Higher Education, 26(9), 20-21. Farmer-Hinton, R. L. (2008). Social capital and college planning: Students of color using school networks for support and guidance. Education and Urban Society, 41(1), 127-157.

Foster, K. C. (2008). The transformative potential of teacher care as described by students in a higher education access initiative. Education and Urban Society, 41(1), 104-126.

Fries-Britt, S., & Turner Kelly, B. (2005). Retaining each other: Narrative of two African American women in the academy. The Urban Review, 37(3), 221-242.

Milner, H. R., IV. (2007). Race, narrative inquiry, and self-study in curriculum and teacher education. Education and Urban Society, 39(4), 584-609.

Perry, G., Moore, H., Edwards, C., Acosta, K., & Frey, C. (2009). Maintaining credibility and authority as an instructor of color in diversity-education classrooms: A qualitative inquiry. The Journal of Higher Education, 80(1), 80-105.

Samuel, E., & Wane, N. (2005). Unsettling relations: Racism and sexism experienced by faculty of color in a predominantly white Canadian university. The Journal of Negro Education, 74(1), 76-78.

Smith, M., J. (2009). Right directions, wrong maps: Understanding the involvement of low-SES African American parents to enlist them as partners in college choice. Education and Urban Society, 41(2), 171-196.

Sokatch, A. (2006). Peer influences on the college-going decisions of low socioeconomic status urban youth. Education and Urban Society, 39(1), 128-146.

Talbert-Johnson, C. (2006). Preparing highly qualified teacher candidates for urban schools: The importance of dispositions. Education and Urban Society, 39(1), 147-160.

Jason Schwarz, Sam Houston State University

Kathy L. Hill, Sam Houston State University