Leading a postmodern workforce.

Green, Daryl D.

ABSTRACT

This paper explores contemporary leadership theory within a postmodernism society in the public sector. The paper investigates leadership theory by comparing and contrasting bureaucratic theory, transactional leadership theory, and transformational leadership theory in the ever changing workforce of federal employees. The study is significant because there are government-wide human capital problems, and this is highly relevant to anyone who must lead in the public sector. The paper concludes with a set of five strategic implications for researchers and practitioners. This effort contributes to further exploration into understanding leadership and organizational culture in the public sector.

INTRODUCTION

With sixty percent (60%) of the government's 1.6 million employees eligible for retirement, the federal government finds itself in a hostile environment. The changes in workforce demographics will create leadership challenges in the future as Baby Boomer employees make their massive exodus from the workforce. For complementary leaders, there is a caution sign that reads, "Proceed cautiously, danger ahead." Currently, the government has declared its human capital practices as a "high risk" area of concern (Blunt, 2003). Linda Springer, the Office of Personnel Management (OPM) Director, calls this issue a retirement tsunami and feels managers need to start taking this cultural shift seriously (Ziegler, 2006). In the past, corporate culture has been able to stabilize such influences; corporate culture gives employees a blueprint for understanding organizational values and beliefs. What happens to an organization when the leader's values are no longer aligned to the belief system of the employees? Reacting to changing cultural influences and global threats abroad, the federal government finds itself in a major transformation process (Blunt, 2003). These situations are made more complicated due to the massive exodus of its leaders. The leadership training for senior executives has been sparse and inadequate in relationship to these culture changes.

The purpose of this article is to provide an exploratory insight related to leadership theory and its application in the postmodern era. This paper examines several aspects of leadership theory consisting of bureaucratic theory, transactional leadership theory, and transformational leadership theory in the public sector. The primary objective is to identify the current values attributed to contemporary leadership and compare varying leadership theories in the postmodern period. The following discussion will be investigated: (a) the current organizational changes, (b) the postmodern culture and its impact upon the workforce, and (c) understanding leadership theory in the postmodern period. These issues are significant because of the potential conflicts that can exist between leaders and employees in organizations.

CONTEMPORARY LEADERSHIP THEORY

Leadership Theory provides researchers an opportunity to understand leader-follower relationships in a cultural framework. Prewitt (2004) noted that the current leadership theories are based on modernist assumptions and are out of date with leading postmodern organizations. Schmidt (2006) argued that leadership definitions reflect the viewpoint of an industrial society, and a new era begat a new definition for leadership. Nevertheless, this paper defines leadership as a contextual influence that has an impact on subordinates' attitudes and performance through effects on the subordinates' perceptions of their job characteristics (Northouse, 2004). Therefore, leaders have the capacity to influence the values needed in a changing organizational environment (Ferguson, 2003).

POSTMODERN CULTURE

Postmodernism is a philosophical term with a cultural context. Modernism places man at the center of reality by utilizing science to explain the meaning of life. In contrast, postmodernism places no one at the center of reality and has no core explanation of life (Kelm, 1999). Ingraffia (1995) figuratively described modernism as an attempt to elevate man into God's place while postmodernism seeks to destroy the very place and attributes of God. Some of the key themes of postmodernism include (a) Pluralism, which means the denial of any one universal truth; (b) Non-objectivism, which conveys that all facts are not hard facts and science has limited application; (c) Deconstruction, which teaches that meaning is through the interpreter rather than the text or object interpreted; (d) Cynicism/pessimism, which promotes the absence of absolute truth, no universal purpose in life, and no possibility of arriving at certain knowledge of anything; and (e) Community, which advocates meaning and understanding determined through a tribal or community setting (Kelm, 1999). Therefore, postmodernism provides a conceptual threat to traditional organizations.

METHODOLOGY

This investigation provides exploratory data by utilizing an extensive literary review of over 20 documents including scholarly opinions and practitioner discussions. The contributions made by well-known researchers in the fields of postmodernism and leadership theory, such as Bass and Yukl, were investigated. The primary objective of this review of literature is to increase depth of knowledge in this field in order to make a relevant analysis of each theory. Electronic databases such as EBSCO Host and the Internet were searched using key words 'leadership theories,' bureaucracy,' 'transactional leadership,' 'transformational leadership,' 'organizational values,' 'corporate culture,' and 'postmodernism.' There was a significant absence of literature related to leadership theories as it relates to postmodernism. Through this process, there is an opportunity to discover the gaps in research.

DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS

Amoeba-like Organizational Change

The enormous demographic changes within the 21st century American workforce are creating organizational growth pains. For the first time in American history, there will be four generations co-existing in the workplace (Hankin, 2005). With global competition, a tightening of corporate budget, and threats of outsourcing core organizational functions, leaders can not afford to manage in the traditional fashion. Currently, there is considerable buzz among practitioners and academics on the role of leadership theory and organizational culture in organizational performance. Harding (2000) explained that a new generation of workers will produce significant human resource problems for traditional organizations. He described this new generation as the Emergent Workforce, which crosses age groups, gender, race, and geography (Harding, 2000). This new set of workers is driven by a new set of values and job expectations. For example, Emergent employees are viewed as job hoppers. In one study, Emergent employees (88%) believed that loyalty was not related to employment length while Traditional employees (94%) viewed loyalty as the willingness to stay with an employer for the long term (Harding, 2000).

Another key value shift among generations is their priorities. While Baby Boomer males and previous generations were more work-focused, Generation X and Y employees are more family-focused. Younger generations are also less accepting of traditional gender roles than previous generations (Harding, 2000). This Emergent Workforce also seeks a more spiritual workplace that emphasizes personal integrity and accountability (Hankin, 2005). Clearly, these differences in value systems create communication barriers and can result in an unproductive organization (Washington, 2002). Thus, the Emergent Workforce becomes more complicated to manage because its members are often motivated by different leadership styles as shown in Table 1 (Hackman & Johnson, 2004).

A Clash of Cultural Values

As organizations continue to replace employees under this changing environment, traditional organizational values will be challenged by postmodern values. Economic, social, and political influences have impacted the value system of today's workforce (Wren, 1994). Organizations communicate their expectations both formally and informally through their corporate culture. Scholars call this environment organizational culture. In most businesses, organizational culture has been a domain where institutions try to promote the values of a more efficient and effective organization. Schultz (1992) argued, however, that postmodernism challenges the very assumptions of the merits of corporate culture. First, postmodernism questions the assumption of the goodness of such corporate values. It transforms these corporate icons into hollow rituals (Schultz, 1992). Second, postmodernism questions corporate culture as an effective tool for organizational identity. Postmodern advocates view corporate culture as producing carbon copies of the same culture in different organizations; this situation effaces the last remains of the organizational originality (Schultz, 1992). Lastly, postmodernism rejects the premise that corporate values can regulate employee behaviors through meaningful events and internalized knowledge. It replaces this organization assumption with the seductiveness of corporate culture to act through aesthetics, renewal, and modern illusions (Schultz, 1992).

These postmodernism premises attack the heart of traditional organizations and thus, provide an avenue for organizational conflict between leaders and followers. Malphurs (2004) explained that organizational values co-exist on two levels, personal and corporate. On a personal level, individuals in general have a set of core values that dictate how they respond to a situation. At the corporate level, every organization has a set of core values that guides the organization while it does business. Organizational values are a key component of its character and signal to followers the organization's bottom-line (Malphurs, 2004). Conversely, an individual's value system will help determine a person's involvement in an organization or a cause. A well-informed employee who understands his own value should align himself with a similar minded organization (Malphurs, 2004). However, the problem arises when the employee's values do not align with the organization. Hackman and Johnson (2004) explained that leaders and followers are also interrelated. For example, Admiral Gunn has very liberal opinions on social issues more than his fellow officers. However, Admiral Gunn must promote the organizational values of the Navy with which he may personally disagree. How does Admiral Gunn promote corporate values to his followers in which he does not believe?

At this moment in time, an organizational conflict is brewing. Today, many organizations operate under a modern cultural cloud while the vast majority of new employees operate in a postmodern culture. Leaders exert a great amount of influence in guiding their followers although followers are more involved in implementing the organizational objectives. A leader's behavior is also influenced by cultural values and tradition (Yukl, 2002). Organ and Bateman (1991) suggested that the existence of a hierarchy, competition, and constraints on behavior guarantee that frustration will be frequent in an organization. Malphurs (2004) maintained that congruent values are the answer to these value conflicts. In mixing modern and postmodern values in organizations, incongruent values are generated (Malphurs, 2004). Therefore, there will be conflicting values held by the modern organization and the competing values espoused by the Emergent Workforce in the postmodern period. This creates chaos (Malphurs, 2004). For example, postmodernism is multicultural and promotes social tolerance. The media heavily bombards today's workforce with these impressions. The casual observer may not observe anything from these media influences; however, organizational leaders can not afford to underestimate these culture changes. Postmodern influences are clearly seen in urban subculture where its followers are characterized by (a) questioning everything, (b) viewing truth as relative, (c)valuing relationships over institutions, (d) valuing the ability of storytelling, and (e) demonstrating of emotion and experience (Smith & Jackson, 2005). Therefore, organizational leaders will need to be real, relevant, and respectful to gain credibility with this subculture (Smith & Jackson, 2005).

Analyzing Leadership Theory in a Culture Quagmire

Applying varying leadership theories in a postmodern workplace could produce a cultural quagmire for organizations. Malphurs (2004) argued that a leader's values influence his followers greatly even though leadership is an amoral process. He further noted that leaders often mirror the organizational values and shape employee values by modeling the way (Malphurs, 2004). Kouzes and Posner (1995) argued that leaders make visions and values meaningful to followers by modeling the way. Much of the assumption about the leader's values is that it is a constant; however, leaders as well as organizations go through a process of value formulation, which may cause a state of flux (Malphurs, 2004). Postmodernism also influences leaders as well as employees, organizations and leaders take longer for these changes to take place; therefore, leaders and organizations are relatively fixed (Malphurs, 2004). Hackman and Johnson (2004) argued that leaders find themselves as negotiators when incompatible interest comes into play and forces leaders to seek a cooperative climate where both parties can agree. However, the competing interest of a modern organization and a postmodern workplace makes this difficult for leaders. Therefore, a new leadership paradigm in organizations needs to be analyzed under continual postmodern influences. Schmidt (2006) advocated a new type of leader in the postmodern age. He describes a leader who understands that many things can not be analyzed away by science. Schmidt also insisted that this leader needs principles based on character and integrity where postmodernism creates a world without rules (Schmidt, 2006, pg.2). According to Prewitt (2004), current leadership in large bureaucratic organizations is invalid for a postindustrial society. It is invalid because it assumes a rational workplace where a bureaucratic structure is sustainable (Prewitt, 2004). However, in the postmodern age, organizations are often complex, networked, emotional, and chaotic.

Understanding leadership theory in postmodernism is vital because leaders are responsible for discovering and articulating the organization's primary values (Malphurs, 2004). Yukl (2002) explained that most leadership theories are focused on processes at only one level because it is difficult to develop a multilevel theory for all situations. Vickrey (n.d.) argued that communications is critical for effective leaders and can explain why some leaders are better than their peers with similar followers. There are concerns, however, about the power of leaders in organizations to influence the values of followers. Yukl (2002) explained that scholars worry about the misuse of power and control over information to bias follower perceptions which could be perceived as attempting to change the underlying values and beliefs of followers. Likewise, the Emergent Workforce requires more collaboration, social intelligence, and worker participation in order to maintain sustainability. Thus, this investigation analyzes three current leadership theories that may be found in public organizations and forecast the impacts of postmodernism influences.

Each theory has it own unique characteristics as shown in Table 2 and 3. First, the leadership theories are Bureaucratic Theory, Transactional Leadership Theory, and Transformational Leadership Theory. In the 1900s, Max Weber postulated that a manager's authority in an organization should be based not on tradition or charisma but on the position held by managers in the organization hierarchy (Wren, 1994). Weber's ideas formed the basis of what is known today as Bureaucracy Theory. In a bureaucratic structure, large organizations such as governments and religious institutions can control employees by giving leader legitimate power and standardizing work processes. The federal government is a form of bureaucracy.

Therefore, many outsiders view organizational leaders as bureaucrats. This title is not viewed as a positive attribute in society. The elements of a bureaucracy include: (a) authority and responsibility clearly identified and legitimatized, (b) hierarchy of authority producing a chain of command, (c) leaders selected by technical competency, training, or education, (d) leaders appointed, not elected, (e) administrative officials work for fixed salaries and have no ownership of process or organization, (f) Administrators subject to strict rules for control (Wren, 1994). Although Weber viewed these attributes as positives during his time, societal changes and economic pressures have shifted public opinion on the merits of bureaucratic theory in a postmodern culture. Bureaucratic leaders influence employees primarily on their legality of authority and the right to issue commands (Bass, 1990). Clearly, these assumptions maintained by bureaucratic leaders will create a value crisis for members in a postmodern workforce.

The process of bureaucracy is often viewed as a cold and heartless process to postmodern employees. For example, a government office manager may work in an environment where she is not respected or valued because of her pay grade. She is never given special assignments or career development activities. She soon grows tired of asking to be treated fairly and becomes a robot in her job. This is a tragic situation because this office manager is special. In her private life, she serves as the chairperson for her local nonprofit organization and is highly respected in her community because of her leadership abilities. Unfortunately, the employee's worth is seen through the len of an impersonal process. Some of the problems with a bureaucracy include the impersonal rules, absoluteness of leadership in authority, and the enforcement of standardization and conformity on individualism (RevisionNotes.Co.Uk, 2001). Organizational leaders need to analyze the ramification of bringing these postmodern employees into a non-flexible bureaucracy.

Second, many effective managers still utilize Transactional Leadership Theory in order to obtain organizational objectives. Transactional leadership along with transformational leadership was advocated by Burns, a political sociologist, in order to link the relationship between leader and follower (Northouse, 2004). In the Transactional Leadership Theory, leadership involves the exchange of benefits. While the leader provides a benefit to followers, in exchange followers comply by achieving the leader's desired outcomes (Jin, n.d.). The leader-follower relationship is submerged in self-interest. The followers enjoy the benefit of extrinsic and intrinsic rewards while the leader obtains status, the privileges of authority, influence, prestige, or other management benefits (Bass, 1990). Critics argue that transactional leaders are most concerned with satisfying the physical needs of the employees and do not want to disrupt the status quo (Hackman & Johnson, 2004). For example, Bill is a survivor of massive downsizing in his company. Because of this fact, his managers give Bill plenty of overtime to get the job down. However, Bill is unhappy because he is doing the work of several people. Bill never does anything extra from the organization because he feels the company does not care.

Transactional leadership also depends upon management by exception and negative feedback; it is an advantage as long as the employee is a rational and economic being (McAulay, 2003). Therefore, these values do not align themselves well to the needs of postmodern employees who are searching for a meaningful existence. Finally, the Transformational Theory also provides an effective method of exchange between leader and followers. In contrast to Transactional Leadership Theory, Transformational Leadership Theory speaks to the higher needs of employees. Whereas transactional leaders work within the framework of the self interest of his or her employees, transformational leaders seek to change the framework (Bass, 1990). A transformational leader will request employees to transcend their own self interests for the good of organization and focus on long-term benefits rather than short-term gain (Bass, 1990). Unlike transactional leadership, transformational leadership attempts to develop employees in such a manner to reach for high performance without the carrot of reward or reprimand. Bass argues that transformational leaders, however, augment some of the attributes of transactional leaders on the efforts, satisfaction, and effectiveness of employees (Bass, 1990). Transformational leaders attempt to raise the consciousness of his followers (Bass, 1990). These attributes work well with postmodern employees. In spite of this positive outlook, transformational leadership has its problem with postmodernism. First, transformational leaders in the federal government still operate in a bureaucratic system that is highly inflexible. Second, transformational leaders are social architects of their organizations so that they promote organizational values and norms to employees (Northouse, 2004). Some postmodernists would consider this negative since these leaders often influence and shape employee attitudes for the organization's benefit. Other scholars argue that transformational leadership is elitist and antidemocratic (Northouse, 2004). Similar to other theories, Transformational Leadership Theory has its drawback when applying postmodern concept. For example, Kelly, a federal executive, created a charged workplace environment for his employees. The workforce loved his charismatic ways. However, his fellow managers demonstrate unethical conduct. While Kelly encourages his employees to have high ethical behavior, he is silent on his peers. By supporting this corporate culture, Kelly loses the trust of his postmodern workforce.

Finally, Schmidt (2006) explained that the postmodern leader should have the following characteristics: (a) adaptable, (b) spiritual-focus, (c) tolerance for ambiguity in life, (d) entrepreneurial in his approach, (e) service-oriented, (f) accountable for action, (g) life-long learners, (h) upgrading performance, and (i) participatory. Although there are many positive attributes of contemporary leadership theories, organizational leaders should be cautious with implementing them in a postmodern framework.

CONCLUSION

Organizational leaders in the public sector will find new challenges as they begin to replace their present workforce in this Postmodern Era. The paper demonstrated that there is an impending public crisis as postmodernism makes its impacts on this traditional framework. Influences of postmodernism make the Emergent Workforce more cynical and pessimistic about life. Postmodernism has employees debating on what is morally right. Therefore, organizational leaders must operate against a backdrop of postmodernism where followers are untrusting of corporate culture. Organizational leaders, who ignore or dismiss the impact of these cultural changes, may find themselves managing a chaotic situation.

Through this investigation, an analysis was conducted comparing aspects of leadership theories to postmodernism. The paper argues that each of the leadership theories have some flaws when applied to postmodernism. Further empirical research needs to be conducted on the influence of postmodernism on leaders, the workforce, and organizational performance. The insight gained through this research may lead to better management strategies for handling a transitional workforce in the public sector. This effort contributes to further exploration into understanding leadership and organizational culture in the public sector.

STRATEGIC IMPLICATIONS

The following strategic implications emerged as a resulted of this investigation and are offered to assist organizations with transitioning an Emergent Workforce into their organizations:

1 Communicate formally and informally the organizational values to employees on a routine basis. Hackman and Johnson (2004) explained that leaders exert a great degree of influence in an organization; therefore, leaders must have more responsibility for the overall direction of the organization.

2 Demand that managers model those corporate values to followers in the organization. Kouzes and Posner (1995) explained that leaders must lead by example so that employees can see they are committed.

3 Discuss organizational values with recruits in the early stage of interviewing to determine if their values align themselves with organizational values.

4 Train current managers so that they understand the needs of this Emergent Workforce. Linda Springer, the OPM Director, feels that managers need to be aware of generational traits because differences in work attitude and style can pose challenges (Ziegler, 2006).

5 Establish an intern program at your workplace where new employees can connect to the organization. Encourage interns to seek out mentors. Discuss the various leadership styles and allow workers to get a sample of each from current leadership.

REFERENCES

Bass, B. (1999). Bass & Stogdill's handbook of leadership. New York: The Free Press.

Blunt, R. (2003). Leaders growing leaders: preparing the next generation of public service executives. Human Capital Management Series.

Ferguson, C. (2003). Whose vision? whose values? on leading information services in an era of persistent change. Retrieved on March 7, 2006, from http://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub123/ferguson.html.

Hackman, M. & Johnson, C. (2000). Leadership: A communication perspective. Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press.

Hankin, H. (2005). Can we recognize our future employees. Workspan, 48(9), 12-13.

Harding, K. (2000). Understanding emerging workforce trends. Retrieved on January 6, 2006, from http://www.dinet/article.php?article_id=129.

Ingraffia, B. (1995). Postmodern theory and biblical theology. About Postmodernism. Retrieved on March 7, 2006, from http://www.freewaybr.com/pomoessay.htm.

Jin, D. (n.d.). Leadership and followership. Retrieved on March 8, 2006, from http://www.dickinson.edu/~jin/Leadership.html.

Kelm, P. (1999). Understanding and addressing a postmodern culture. Presented to the Board for Parish Services.

Kouzes, J. & Posner, B. (1995). The leadership challenge. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Malphurs, A. (2004). Values-driven leadership. Grand Rapids, MI: Bakerbooks.

McAulay, L. (2003). Transformational leadership: a response to limitations in conventional information systems evaluation. Electronic Journal of Information Systems Evaluation.

Northouse, P. (2004). Leadership theory and practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Organ, D. & Bateman, T. (1991). Organizational behavior. Homewood, IL: Irwin.

Prewitt, V. (2004). Integral leadership for the 21st century. World Futures, 60, 327-333.

Revision-notes.co.uk. (2001). Characteristics of bureaucracy. Received on March 8, 2006 from http://www.revisionnotes. co.uk/revision/1019.html.

Schmidt, H. (2006). Leadership in a postmodern world. Retrieved on March 7, 2006, from http://www.mbseminary.edu/current/images/article/schmidt1.htm.

Schultz, M. (1992). Postmodern picture of culture. Int. Studies of Mgt. & Org., 22(2), 15-35. Smith, E. & Jackson, P. (2005). The hip hop church. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Press.

Vickrey, J. (n.d.). Symbolic leadership: The symbolic nature of leadership. Received on March 7, 2006 from http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/au-24/vickrey.pdf#search='article %2C%20symbolic%20leadership%2C%20jim%20vickrey.

Washington, G. (2002). Staffing the postmodern army. Combined Arms Center Military Review, 1-7.

Yukl, G. (2002). Leadership in organizations. Delhi, India: Pearson Education, Inc.

Ziegler, M. (March, 6, 2006). OPM chief urges new vision to recruit younger feds. Federal Times, 6.

Daryl D. Green, Regent University

Table 1, Characteristics of the Emergent Workforce

Generation Leadership Preference

The Matures As a follower -Thrive under a directive
(1927- 1945) leadership style
 As a leader -Lead others by taking charge and
 making decisions alone

Baby Boomers As a follower -Thrive under a participatory
(1946-1964) leadership style
 As a leader -Lead in a collegial and consensual
 fashion with a general concern of others
 Source: Leadership: A Communication Perspective by
 Hackman & Johnson

Generation X As a follower -Does not thrive under authority
(1965 -1976) leadership style
 As a leader -Lead others by being adaptable to
 change, fair, competent,
 participatory, and diversity-sensitive

Generation Y As a follower - Does not thrive under authority
(1977 - leadership style
present) As a leader -Lead with a tolerance of others,
 value-centered, rule-oriented, and
 culturally sensitive
 Source: Leadership: A Communication Perspective by
 Hackman & Johnson

Table 2, Comparison Model of Leadership Theory

 Postmodern Theory Bureaucratic Theory

 Advantages Advantages
 Worldview Formalized

 Aesthetics Chain of command

 Rhizomatic (thinking Division of labor
 outside the box)

 Flexibility Legitimate leaders

 Commitment to small Fixed compensations
 groups for meaning
 Duties of leaders and
 employees clear

 Transactional Theory Transformational Theory

 Advantages Advantages
 Feedback to employees Visionary

 Rewards employees for Seek to change the framework
 performance
 Communication Raise employees'
 exchange consciousness
 Demand for higher employee
 Adherence and performance
 Maintenance of existing Empowerment
 goals and norms Inspirational

 Higher level of motivation
 and morality

 Consideration of employees
 as
 individuals as well as value of
 team

 High communications

 Promote innovative thinking

 Trust building

 Source: Yukl, Hackman Source: Yukl, Hackman &
 & Johnson, Bass, & Johnson, Bass, & Northouse
 Northouse

Table 3, Comparison Model of Leadership Theory

 Postmodern Theory Bureaucratic Theory

 Disadvantage Disadvantages
 No single truth Impersonal rules

Historical and cultural process Impersonal guidelines
 over reason

 Disappearance of authority, Discharge of authority
unity, continuity, purpose, and based on rules without
 commitment regard for persons

 Emergence of complexity, Norm of impersonality
 multiplicity, fragmentation, govern interpersonal
resistance, negation, rupture, relations
 and irreverence for any
 specific goals

 Against institutionalism People are considered parts
 of a group instead of an
 individual

 Inflexible and slow to
 cultural changes

 Source: Ingraffia, Schmidt, & Source: Revision-
 Schultz notes.co.uk

 Transactional Theory Transformational Theory

 Disadvantages Disadvantages
 Appeal to the "economic Social architect
 man"
 Status quo

 Based on rewards and Aligned to organizational
 consequences values and norms
 Inflexible in a bureaucracy

 Elitist

 Antidemocratic

 Source: Yukl, Hackman & Source: Yukl, Hackman &
 Johnson, Bass, & Johnson, Bass, & Northouse
 Northouse