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标题：Responsibility judgments of wins and losses in the 2013 chess championship
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作者：Nordbye, Gro Hege Haraldsen ; Teigen, Karl Halvor
期刊名称：Judgment and Decision Making
印刷版ISSN：1930-2975
出版年度：2014
卷号：9
期号：4
页码：335-348
出版社：Society for Judgment and Decision Making
摘要：We report two studies on the perceived responsibility of opponents competing for a goal that can be attained by only one of them. Responsibility judgments were collected in seven samples of lay people and experts before, during, and after the World Chess Championship in 2013. Participants assessed the responsibility of the two players, their supporting teams, local conditions, and chance factors for four hypothetical outcomes (large and small loss/win for each player), along with probabilities for these outcomes, demonstrating subadditivity (sums exceeding 100%) in all samples, even among chess experts. The winner was consistently perceived to be more responsible than the loser, and more for outcomes with large than small margins. There was also an effect of focal player, as Carlsen was given more responsibility both for losses and wins than Anand, by the present (Norwegian) pro-Carlsen samples. However, this effect could be modified by describing the outcomes as Anand's (rather than Carlsen's) wins and losses. Thus the study adds to the valence framing literature by showing how responsibility judgments are affected by the way outcomes are framed. % edits in abstract
关键词：responsibility judgments; framing; subjective probabilities; chess.